AIMS AND OBJECTS OF COOKING
The aim or the intention of cooking is to see that the food cooked undergoes a physical change, sometimes a chemical change and is acceptable.
The object of cooking is to achieve certain results such as:
To facilitate and hasten digestion, so that the cooked food is absorbed by the digestive system and subsequently assimilated by the body. This is largely determined in the manner the food is cooked. During the cooking process, it breaks down the cellulose in plant food, softens some of the connective tissues of meat, breaks down and gets starches present. The alteration is brought about in texture, by physical and chemical changes thus assisting mastication.
A physical change occurs when a substance changes its form, colour or size, but still remains that same substance, like water that changes to ice. A chemical change occurs when a substance changes its form, colour or size, combining so as to form an entirely new body, e.g. green marrow changes its colour and milk changes to curd.
EFFECT OF COOKING
The effect of cooking upon the three chief constituents of food proteins, carbohydrates and fats-is visible in their increased digestibility.
PROTEINS
The protein of meat (myosin), of egg (albumen), of wheat (gluten), of pulse (legumin) is coagulated by heat. Avoid high temperatures as the protein hardens, denatures and shrinks and the food becomes indigestible. The connective tissue is converted into gelatine which is soluble in water and rendered digestible. The proteins' biological value is improved by moderate heating.
CARBOHYDRATES
STARCH in food is greatly affected by heat. By moist heat, it is converted first into a soluble form and then by extreme heat into a new substance, sweetish in flavour-dextrin as in the crust of bread.
Moist heat causes the starch grains to swell; it gelatinizes at a temperature below boiling point of water, the degree of heat varying with the kind of starchy food.
CELLULOSE is softened by the application of moist heat.
SUGAR when heated in water dissolves, then colors, upon further heating, turns brown and becomes a caramel and emits a lovely flavour, but does not crystallize.
Moderate heat does not cause much loss of mineral salts and vitamins, except vitamin C.
FATS
If heated to a very high degree for a long time, fats undergo partial decomposition and fatty acids and glycerol are produced. Glycerol further decomposes into Acer Olin which is an irritating compound to the digestive system.
Cooking pleases the eye and is receptive to the palate and helps to stimulate the digestive juices, thereby creating an appetite. On application of heat, the red coloring matter such as hemoglobin in meat decomposes and changes the red colour to brown. Flavors are developed, which stimulate the digestive juices. The colour of the vegetables is brightened. Green vegetables fast boiled without a lid, improve the green colour. Cauliflower when boiled, in acidic medium, gets a white refreshed look.
Cooking sterilizes the food partially. Cooked food can be stored for a longer time and it prevents food poisoning and diseases when stored properly. Some of the diseases producing germs are killed by cooking. They are killed because of high temperature during the cooking process. A temperature of 60° (140°F) applied over 30 or more minutes, kills most of the pathogenic germs, however, there are some spore germs which are not destroyed by the usual cooking temperature: they take about 4 to 5 hours to get destroyed at a high temperature. High temperature penetrates to the centre or interior of food, especially in pork, beef and mutton.
4. Cooking retains, as far as possible, the nutritive and flavoring ingredients. The flavour depends upon the amount and kind of extractives present, and the acids developed. Nutritive value is enhanced if the fat proportion in the meat is more. While cooking, the nutrition could be preserved by using the cooking liquor.
Cooking gives a variety to the menu, as one food item could be cooked in various ways and given different textures, e.g. mutton in a soup, roast joint, croquettes. Stews, steaks, keema, sookha meat, boti kababs etc. Different methods of cooking when used make the menu interesting and enhance variety. It is. Therefore, easier to plan a balanced diet.
6. Cooking preserves food for a longer time. The high temperature destroys bacteria and limits spoilage.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RAW MATERIALS
For the preparation of good, tasty, colorful dishes, it is essential to have a basic knowledge of the raw materials, their characteristics and the special part they play. This knowledge helps to substitute’s materials when necessary, or rectify the texture and taste if something goes wrong. Also it helps to improve the quality and get the standard end product.
The raw materials are thus classified according to the part they play in making up a dish:
(1) Salt (4) Fats & Oils (7) Flavoring and Seasonings
(2) Liquids (5) Raising agent (8) Eggs
(3) Sweetening (6) Thickenings
SALT
It brings out the flavour of other ingredients. The other name for salt is sodium chloride; it is readily available in a solid (rock salt) or in a solution form (sea salt). Salt, having a distinctive taste, transforms an insipid dish to a wonderful dish. It should be used skillfully, or too much of it could spoil the dish.
Salt is available in 3 forms:
Table salt containing phosphate
Coarse or Freezing salt for culinary purpose.
Celery salt it is a blend of celery root and ordinary salt and is purchased ready prepared. It is used for flavoring certain dishes as an alternative to fresh celery or celery seed.
USES OF SALT
1. Use of the correct amount of salt improves the flavour of the savory dishes and when a little is added to the sweet dishes, it enhances the flavour.
2. It has a physical effect on the gluten of flour and strengthens gluten and increases its resistance to the softening effect of fermentation.
3. Cauliflower, when put in salted water, makes the insects come out.
4. It has a controlling effect on the activity of yeast in bakery products. It controls fermentation and hence it has marked effect on crumb, crust and colour of baked products.
5. Salt added to water, for cooking green vegetables, helps in colour retention and enhances the taste.
6. Salting is one of the oldest popular methods of preserving ham, bacon, fish etc.
7. Salt is essential for good health.
LIQUIDS
Liquids are important as they are used for the purpose of cooking, binding and coating etc. Milk, water, stock and fruit juices are the most commonly used liquids. They prevent food from burning, bind dry ingredients and help in maintaining the right consistency. Water and milk are used for preparing poaching liquor (court bouillon) soups, sauces, gravies, cakes and pastry mixtures and pastry mixtures and kneading of dough, etc. Buttermilk is used for curries. kadi, etc. Stock is a liquid containing soluble nutrients and flavors, which are extracted by prolonged and gentle simmering (except fish stock20 mins.). They are used as the foundation of soups, sauces, gravies, curries, poaching liquors and many important kitchen preparations. It is important that the correct amount of liquid should be used, or too much would make the food stodgy, soggy or watery.
SWEETENING
When sweetening is used with other foods it enhances the combined sensations of odour and flavour of the dish produced. It also adds its own sweetness, and is a versatile food product. Its uses in the kitchen are varied, Substitution of one sugar (castor, icing) for another in a baking formula, gives allowance for the difference in the sweetening effect. Sweetening is available in various forms-granulated, fine-grained, and powdered and in a solution form. Sugars vary in their sweetening quality and are available in the following forms:
Ø Granulated sugar Ø Castor sugar Ø Icing sugar
Ø Lactose (milk sugar) Ø Cane syrup Ø Maple syrup
Ø Treacle Ø Honey Ø Golden syrup.
FUNCTIONS
1. Low concentration of sugar speeds the effectiveness of baker's yeast by providing an immediate, fast cooking course of nourishment for its growth-thus hastening the leavening process.
2. The ability of sugar to crystallize, gives a delightful variety in cookery.
3. Sugar gives puddings, breads, buns and bread rolls a good flavour (caramel), the characteristic golden brown colour, and a tender and even texture.
4. Fermentation is aided by sugar in brewing, wine-making and in the distillation of spirits.
5. Sugar has long been used as a preservative. it is an effective preservative and can dissolve in water at very high concentration.
6. It is an energy food and can be stored for a long time without getting spoilt.
SUGAR USED IN BAKERY
Stock Sugar Syrup
500 gm Cube sugar 120 gm Glucose 1 litre Water
Boil all the ingredients together in a clean Sugar boiler. Strain through a cloth into a basin and keep covered.
METHOD AND TEMPERATURES OF COOKING
Take the required amount from the Stock Sugar and boil to the correct temperature between 116° and 160°F. Keep the side of the pot clean during the boiling, by washing the sides frequently with water. DO NOT STIR Add a few drops of lemon juice and shake well.
PULLED SUGAR
Pour on to a slightly oiled marble slab, allow to cool slightly, with a knife turn the sugar over folding, together, work the sugar with the hand to a pliable consistency. Aniline powder is best for this type of work, being very strong in colour and easily dissolved in warm water. The colour is added to the cooked sugar when poured onto the marble slab and before working with hands.
DEGREES AND STAGES OF COOKING THE SUGAR
116°C Soft Ball Suitable for Marzipan
119°C Ball Suitable for Fondant
121°C Hard Ball Suitable for Nougat
140°C Small crake Suitable for Italian Meringue
153°C Crack Suitable for Dipping Fruit
160°C Hard crack Suitable for Pulled Sugar
FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils are nutritionally useful and in some form, economical sources of energy and give a satiety value to the dish. They also contribute characteristic palatability, qualities of flavour and texture. They are popularly used as the medium of cooking. Fats are solid at ordinary temperature and melt when heated. Oils are liquids at ordinary temperature. Only coconut oil solidifies at low temperature. Various fats used in cooking are -lard (pig's fat), suet (fat around kidneys), dripping (Tallow Beef fat), butter, margarine, ghee, hydrogenated fat, cocoa butter (for confectionery).Oils are extracted from coconut, palm, sesame, cotton seed, olive, peanut, mustard, corn and sunflower. Salad oil is a deodorized vegetable oil and is used for salad dressings, etc. as olive oil-the best for the purpose - is very expensive and scarce. Fats and oils are used for various purposes, the major culinary part played by them are as:
Ø Spreads Ø Shortenings Ø Salad dressings Ø Frying media Ø Tempering.
SPREADS
Butter and margarines are used for spreads, and their function is to add to the flavour, nutritional value and satiety value of breads.
SHORTENING
These are fats which shorten the gluten strands, surround them and make them more easily broken (short). When added to bread, it gives a bit of tenderness, richness and sheen to the crumb.
TEMPERING
Dals, curries, rice dishes, etc. are tempered. The fat or oil is heated to which cumin seeds or mustard, or fenugreek seeds, etc. is added and poured over the daIs.
SALAD DRESSINGS
Fat is used for the various salad dressings-Hot animal fat dressings, which consist of bacon fat, vinegar and seasonings, served hot, are used on green hot salads. Cooked dressing is a cooked mixture of egg, vinegar, fat, starch and seasonings. French dressings are emulsions of oil, vinegar or lemon juice and seasoning. Mayonnaise is an emulsion of oil, acid, egg yolk and seasoning.
FRYING MEDIUM
Fats and oils are used as a medium of cooking, i.e. pan roasting, frying, and sautéing. When fats or oils are heated, a temperature is reached at which visible fumes appear which is defined as smoke point. Fats with high smoke point are suitable for frying. Different fats do not have the same smoke point. The highest frying needed for any food is about 199°C (390°C). Hydrogenated fats have a high smoke point and are good as a frying medium compared to other fats. For the selection of a good fat, the following points should be remembered. A frying fat should have a high smoke point, low congealing point, high stability, low moisture content, and should have an acceptable flavour. Fats and oils have a high percentage of unsaturated fats and have more shortening power, than saturated fats. Animals’ fats such as butter, lard and suet make the food short, i.e. break off (short) and readily melt in the mouth. For the selection of shortening, the following factors should be observed:
1. Shortening should cream well or it will affect the cake volume.
2. It should have no moisture; then it will be short. Shortness is correlated to baking biscuits, cookies, pastries, wafers, mathies, nankhatais, nimkies etc.
3. The shortening should be stable and should not get rancid so that the cooked product has a good keeping quality.
4. The right consistency of fat, i.e. solidified for puff and flaky pastry, soft for cakes and biscuits help to get a good texture. To acquire good results in baking, because of fats and other ingredients, certain rules should be followed- "The richer the pastry, the hotter the oven, and the richer the cake, the cooler the oven."
RENDERING OF FAT
Animal fat is heated and melted and this renders fat from fatty tissues. Tallow, suet and lard are, usually rendered and used for cooking. The fat is cut into small pieces and placed in a pan and put in the oven or on slow fire, until the fat melts, and there are crisp brown pieces of tissues left. This should be strained through a fine cloth into a clean bowl.
CLARIFICATION OF FAT
Used fat should be clarified and then used for better results in cooking. Strain the used fat and then mix double the quantity of water in a pan and bring it to the boil. Strain again, cool and place it in a refrigerator. The fat will solidify and float on top. Lift the cake of fat, turn it upside down and scrape off the foreign particles that have collected. Heat the fat on slow fire,till the water evaporates and then strain and store it in a cool place.
RAISING OF LEAVENING AGENTS
Leavening is increasing the surface area of a dough or batter by creating within myriads of gas bubbles puffing up, thus increasing the volume and making it light.
The expansion of these gases during baking increases the volume of the product and gives a desirable porous structure. The aeration of flour products is affected by the following:
1. Biological (yeast) 2. Chemical (baking powder)
3. Mechanical (whisking. beating) 4. Lamination (folding. rolling)
5. Combination of the above.
YEAST
It is a living micro-organism and is a form of plant life. It requires food, moisture, warmth and air for its growth. The primary function of yeast is to change sugar into carbon dioxide gas, so that the dough, in which it is generated, is aerated. It also assists in mellowing and ripening the gluten of the dough, and it contains vitamin B complex. When yeast is dispersed in water at a suitable temperature and mixed to a smooth paste with flour and all the food necessary for fermentation are present, E.g. sugar, skimmed milk, the sugar acts as food and soluble proteins to form the structure and building material of the new cells. Activity starts within the yeast cell, yeast exudes a substance known as an enzyme which changes a solution of sugar (sucrose) and water into a simple sugar (dextrose) thus absorbed within the yeast cell and changed to carbon dioxide and alcohol, together with other by-products. Other enzymes in flour and yeast change some of the soluble starch to sugar, which in turn is assimilated by the yeast arid changed, so that aeration goes on from this continued production of gas.
When using yeast, these points should be remembered:
It remains dormant in cold.
It rises in warmth.
It is killed by heat (if temperature is over 1270 F).
It is fed by sugar, and in the dough it caramelizes on the outside, forming a brown crust.
It is fed by flour; the starch gelatinizes with the moisture inside the dough and cooks into a light spongy mixture which is digestible.
6. Strong or hard flour is the best to use in bread making.
If salt is added in the correct proportions, it gives a good flavour, controls fermentation and improves the colour of the finished goods.
Commercial yeast is of two main types compressed in cake form (also in a liquid form) and dry yeast in granular form. Compressed yeast is a moist mixture of yeast plants and starch. The yeast remains active and multiplies rapidly if added to the dough. It should be kept in the deep freezer, because it retains its activity for several weeks, or even months. Liquid yeasts and starters are sometimes used in household bread-making. They are mixtures of active yeasts from compressed form with yeast food, such as sugar and potato flour or dough. They have a short storage life.
DRY YEAST
It is a mixture of yeast with corn meal or starch pressed into cakes and dried. Such yeasts continue to live, but are in an inactive state. When furnished with food and moisture they begin to develop and multiply, but do so slowly. They can be stored for a long time and are inexpensive.
ACTIVATED DRY YEAST
It develops faster than dry yeast and is less perishable than compressed yeast. It is used in straight dough mixing. It should be stored at refrigerator temperature for a longer life.
CHEMICALS
Chemical aeration is brought about by the production of carbon dioxide from the action, in solution, of an alkali and an acid in the presence of heat. The acid and alkali in correct proportions (which is harmless to human digestion) is baking powder. With this method of aeration, the greater amount of gas should be generated after heat has been applied, i.e. when the goods are in the oven.
The carbon dioxide which is generated passes into the air cells already created and is held by the network of gluten in the dough. This generation of gas and the consequent expansion causes an increase in the volume, which is held by the coagulation of the gluten and other proteins that are present. The dough cooked
becomes light and digestible. Baking powder consists of two parts acid and one part alkali. This can be bought readymade or it can be made as per the following recipes:
Recipe I: Cream of tartar 60 Gms
Bicarbonate of soda 32 Gms
Corn flour (optional. increases the stability of the mixture.)
METHOD
Sieve together several times. It has to be kept in an airtight tin. The addition of one part rice flour or corn flour will help to keep dry.
Recipe II: Tartaric acid 30 Gms
Bicarbonate 30 Gms
Method: - Same as above.
The latter recipe is suitable, but once moistened it reacts rapidly, so that much of the gas is lost, if delayed in reaching the oven. Other acids which may be used, when combined with bicarbonate of soda will produce carbon dioxide such as vinegar and sour milk. When sodium bicarbonate is heated, it gives off part of its carbon dioxide, but leaves sodium carbonate as a residue. This compound is unpalatable and hence should always be neutralized with an acid which leaves a relatively tasteless and harmless salt. If no sodium bicarbonate is added, the cookies are pale in colour; when it is added, the intensity of colour increases with the quantity of soda. Cream of tartar used in angel cakes increases their activity and tends to make them white and fine grained.
MECHANICAL AERATION
It is incorporating air by whisking, beating and sieving. When sugar and eggs, fat and sugar, fat and flour or any combination of these are beaten or whisked together, or flour is sieved, it works as aeration. Whichever way the air is introduced into the mixing, be it by hand, whisk, spatula or by machine, it is still termed mechanical aeration. Air is incorporated into the mixing by one of the above means and is held there by the fat, eggs, or both; aeration is brought about by the expansion of the air in the hot oven, together with the water vapor pressure within the air bubbles. One of the best examples of mechanical aeration is the sponge cake, where a foam is produced from the eggs and sugar, the flour is then folded in the sponge and baked. The egg and flour proteins coagulate and the starch cooks thereby making the sponge set.
WATER VAPOUR
Lamination acts as a raising agent. In pastries- folding and rolling helps to give the lift. In Idlis, khaman, dhoklas, etc. steam formed by the heat, helps to puff up, as liquid and flour are present in equal quantities. As the popcorns have moisture inside the grains, when heated, they expand in volume. The fundamental objective when making puff pastry is to build up a structure of fat and dough consisting of many layers so that when subjected to heat in an oven, it will expand and lift evenly, to produce goods with short eating properties. In the oven, the pastry, which consists of thin layers of dough separated by films of fat, comes under the influence of heat, and the gluten in the dough layers is caused to expand and blister. The fat melts and the dough layers are insulated and the fat takes on a higher temperature, dough layers are cooked, the gluten coagulates and becomes almost rigid and the pastry does not collapse. It is the expansion and blistering of the gluten in the dough layers as a result of steam pressure from the water in the dough that is responsible for the lift.
COMBINATIONS
Danish pastries are a combination of aeration by yeast and by lamination. For this, rich yeast dough is made and butter is incorporated as for puff pastry. In this, the pastry expands in volume, because of the process of aeration, by lamination, and at the same time is aerated by the action of yeast.
THICKENING AND BINDING AGENTS
Thickening agents give body, consistency, and palatability, when used. They improve the nutritive value. Flavored liquids are thickened and converted into soups, sauces, gravies, curries, bavarois, mousses, puddings, etc.
Binding agents are used to form a mixture of ingredients into a cohesive mass.
The thickening agents are starch, agar, eggs, gelatin, coconut, tamarind, curd, poppy seeds, onion paste, coriander power, etc. Starch is the reserve carbohydrate of plants and is abundant in common foods: corn, rice, wheat, potatoes, arrowroot, and tapioca; rice has about 80% starch, wheat 70% potatoes about 19% starch,
Starch is classified into
Ø Cereal
Ø Starches,
Ø Root starches
Ø Instant starches.
Cereal starch is found in: Rice, wheat and maize. When cooked, corn, wheat, or rice, begins to gelatinize at about 71° (l600F) but requires about 85-96°C (l85-205°F) for maximum thickening. Cereal starches when cooked and cooled tend to gel, while most root starches do not, as they have more thickening power than root starches. Root starches are tapioca, potato and arrowroot which thicken at a lower temperature of 65-71°C (150160OF) than cereal starches. They thicken completely below boiling point. Instant starches are pre-cooked starches, also known as pre-gelatinized starches. Instant puddings, etc. in the market contain instant starches. Agar is a rigid transparent gel, and is used for salads, sweet dishes. It is seaweed, widely found in China. Eggs give a firm gel when baked, and thicken, but are soft when stirred. Gelatin (unflavored) is used for salads, cold sweets, cold soups. When set, it is transparent, firm and quivery. Coconut is used for curries, and gives the gravy a whitish colour, thickens and enhances the taste. Tamarind is used in a pulpy form and it gives a thickening to the consistency of the gravy and gives a brownish appearance and an acidic taste. Curd is used for thickening curries and it gives a whitish appearance, and a good flavour. Poppy seeds, onion paste, coriander powder give body to the curries, and slightly thicken the gravy and blend with the flavour of the curry.
FLAVOURINGS AND SEASONINGS
Spices and herbs give flavoring and seasoning to the dishes. To get effective results, not only should the food please the eye, but should also flatter or stimulate the palate. The success of cooking largely depends upon the help we obtain from flavoring and seasoning. The spice we use for this purpose should be used sparingly, as well as with skill. All palates may not crave for highly spiced food, yet majority of people demand that the food be moderately flavored with the right constituents. To use flavoring and seasoning rightly is a great accomplishment; the dish could be spoilt by being over seasoned. Seasoning should bring out the natural flavors of the main ingredients and blend with them. Seasonings as such have little or no nutritive value but are valuable for they give variety to the dishes and have medicinal value.
IMPORTANCE OF SPICES AND HERBS
HELP IN DIGESTION
From prehistoric times, spices have been used. Clove oil stimulates the flow of gastric juices; garlic, aniseed and asafetida are taken for better digestion, and to reduce the chances of hypertension.
USED FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES
For toothache, clove oil relieves pain. Turmeric and oil applied on swellings and hurts, cures, as it is believed to have antiseptic qualities, etc. Garlic and saunf help digestion, ginger added to tea helps to cure colds. Turmeric added to milk is given to a person who is in a state of shock.
ENHANCE FLAVOUR
Dishes would be insipid and bland if the spices were not added, because they give a good flavour and stimulate appetite. The flavorings added should not be overpowering, but there should not be a suspicion that they have been added. This mental search for the flavour makes the dish more interesting. Monosodium glutamate is a flavour enhancer in meat and fish dishes. Cinnamon, bay leaf, nutmeg, saffron, pepper, cloves, etc. also enhance flavour. Monosodium glutamate is salt like crystals known as MSG. It is marketed under various brand names and is produced by a special process from wheat, Soya and sugar beet. It enhances flavour in the cooking of savory dishes.
IMPROVE APPEARANCE
Some of the spices give colour to the food and improve the appearance of the dish. Turmeric, saffron, coriander leaves, poppy seeds, ratanjot and colour to the food, which makes the dish interesting.
IMPROVE PALATABILITY
Salt is one of the important seasonings that enhance the taste of the food. It also brings out the flavour. The other seasonings that improve the palatability are pepper, chilies, poppy seeds, coriander seeds and paprika, etc.
ACT AS PRESERVATIVES
Many food are preserved for a longer time with the help of spices. Salt is used extensively for preserving - brine solution. Other spices that have the preservative quality are-turmeric, cloves, mustard, ginger, garlic, asafetida. Pickling is one of the forms of preserving. Spices that have flavorings and seasonings are: Garlic, ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, cumin seeds, mustard seeds, poppy seeds, nutmeg, asafoetida, coriander powder, mace, pepper, fenugreek, chillies, saffron, aniseeds, turmeric, paprika, caraway seeds, allspice, sesame.
Various herbs are parsley, celery, coriander leaves, thyme, tarragon, rosemary, mint, marjoram, sage, bay leaf, basil, chervil, caripatta etc.
Spices and herbs are available in different forms:
Ø Fresh.
Ø Dehydrated
Ø Powdered,
Ø Liquids Essences (concentrated) of spices. E.g. clove, Cinnamon etc.
Many combinations of spices in a powdered form are marketed today. E.g. chana masala, rasam powder, sambar masala for onions, garam masala, jal zeera masala, meat masala etc. This process retains original flavour and improves keeping quality and makes transportation economical and easy. Spices are also available in liquid form.
FISH &; SHELL FISH
Most fishes are edible and the world of fish represent as enormous source of good food. The most nourishing fishes come from the river: the eels, rohu etc. All fishes consists of nearly 75% of water and also the albuminoids consistency varies little from fish to fish ( about 18%). The fat content variation is very high. The fish has the advantage in the content of phosphorated compounds. Especially the lean fishes are much more easily digestible and hence represent as an excellent food for the sedentary workers and sick.
In general terms for recognition purpose, fish can be divided into two groups or types; the flat fishes which are to be found near the bottom of the sea; and the Round fishes which are commonly found swimming near the surface. There are also, of course, Shellfish (crustaceans and molluscs). All of these are further sub-divided, first into Sea or Fresh water fish, white fish, oily fish, etc.; and then into distinct families or groups.
Classification of Fish
FISH
1.Fin fish
2. Shell fish
White fish Oily fish Molluscs Crustaceans
Fin fish
They are vertebrates and have skin and scales which cover the body. They move with the help of fins. They are subdivided into:
White fish
White fish are mainly flat fish, and contain oil only in the liver. Most of these are deep sea fish. Common local examples are pomfret, sole etc.
Atlantic Halibut Winter Flounder
Butterfish
Oily fish
Oily fish are mainly round fish and contain fat all over the body. The amount of fat varies from 1.5% to 20% in different varieties. These fish are often pigmented and tend to be surface fish. Example: mackerels, sardines etc.
Shell fish
As the name denotes have a shell covering the body. They are invertebrates. They are subdivided into:
Molluscs:
Bivalves
(e.g. oysters, scallops, mussels, clams and cockles) which have two distinctly separate shells joined by a hinge-like membrane. The movements of the shell are controlled by a strong muscle. When the muscle relaxes, the two halves of the shell fall open. The shell also open when the organism dies, thus exposing the contents of the shell to contamination from outside, resulting in quick putrefaction.
Univalves:
(e.g. whelks and winkles) These are recognized by the characteristic spiral formation of their shells, which unlike those of bivalves are not divided into halves.
The shells of molluscs increase at the rate of one ring per year to allow for the growth of the organism. The age of the molluscs can thus be roughly estimated by the number of rings on the shell.
Crustaceans
Crustaceans have a segmented, crust-like shell (e.g. lobsters, crabs, prawns, shrimps). The shells of crustaceans do not grow with the fish, unlike those of the molluscs, but are shed every year, with a new one forming to suit their new size.
POINTS OF SELECTION OF FISH
Absolute freshness is essential if the best is to be obtained from any fish dish, both in flavour and nourishment. Stale fish are not only unappetizing but can also be the cause of digestive disorders or even poisoning. In these days of quick-freeze, of course, the bulk of the fish reaches the markets frozen and, if the fish was frozen whilst fresh and it is used immediately after defrosting, it will to all intents and purposes be equal to fresh fish, although some of the flavour will have been lost in refrigeration. The following are some tests which can be applied to determine the freshness or otherwise of fish:
1. The eyes should be bright and ‘full’, not sunken;
2. The gills should be bright pinkish red in colour;
3. The flesh must be firm and springy, or elastic;
4. Scales, if any, should be plentiful, firm and should not come off when fish is handled;
5. The fish should have a pleasant, salty smell.
Sure signs and indications of staleness
1. an unpleasant ammoniac odour which increases with its staleness,
2. limp flesh retaining the imprint of one’s fingers,
3. Sunken eyes,
4. Gills dull and discolored.
The quality is determined by the condition of the skin, which should be shining and of good colour. The flesh of white fish should be really white, not yellowish. The fish should feel heavy in relation of size, the flesh plump and springy.
CLEANING OF FISH
De-scaling And Cleaning
1. Soaking the fish in cold water for a few minutes before descaling, helps in removing scales more easily.
2. The blunt side of the knife should be used.
3. The head of the fish is held with the left hand and holding the knife vertical, scraping is done starting from the tail, working towards the head, the scales are scraped off. The fish is then washed to remove any loose scales.
4. Cut off the fins, remove the head. The entrails should be removed by cutting the length of the fish from the vent end to the head on the belly side.
Filleting
Cut the flesh along the line of the backbone and raise the fillet from the middle of the back, to the sides, first working towards the head, then the tall.
Skinning
Hold the tail end of the fish in the left hand, first sprinkling salt on the fingers for a good grip. Skin the flesh (skin side down) from tail to head, with quick short sawing strokes of a sharp knife. Point the knife blade towards the skin so that no flesh is wasted.
BASIC CUTS
La Darne A slice or steak of round fish on the bone. E.g. Darne de Saumon, Darne
De cabillaud.
Le Troncon A slice or steak of flat fish on the bone. E.g. Troncon de Turbot, Troncon
De barbue.
Le Filet A fillet of fish, usually from a small fish without bones. E.g. Filet de sole,
Filet de plie.
Le Supreme Applied to large fillets of fish, cut into portion on the slant e.g. Supreme
de Fletan, Supreme de Aigrefin.
Le Delice Applied to neatly folded fillets of fish e.g. Delice de Sole, Delice de
Merlan.
Le Goujon Applied to fillet of fish cut into strips approx. 6 cm. x ½ cm. (3 in x ¼
in) usually floured, egg-washed and bread crumbed e.g. Goujon de Plie,
Goujon de Sole.
La Paupiette This term is applied to fillets of smaller fish, usually sole which are
stuffed with farce, fish or vegetables, or mixture of both, neatly rolled into a barrel shape, tied or pinned
HERBS AND SPICES
HERBS
There are of 30 well known types of herbs approximately 12 are generally used. Herbs may be used fresh but usually dried to ensure continues supply throughout the year. The leaves contain volatile oils which impart flavour and smell. Herbs have no food value but are important from nutritive point of view in adding digestion as they stimulate flow of gastric juices.
BASIL (TULISI)
Aromatic herb originating in India name is derived from Greek meaning basilikos i.e. royal .The leaves have a strong flavor of jasmine and lemon. Leaves are used in raw or cooked particularly tomato dishes as also salads, stuffing’s.
BAYLEAF (TEJ PATTA)
Bay leaves are leaves of the bay laurel or sweet bay trees or shrubs. They may be fresh or dried and are used for flavoring soups, sauces, staves fish etc. they form an importan part of the Bouquet-garni.
CHERVIL
An aromatic plant originating from central Asia but now common throughout Europe, It is best when used in fresh form. It aroma is very volatile and care must be taken to avoid excessive cooking or heating. It is used complement to sauces. In addition to common chervil there in curl chervil
CELERY
A vegetable grown for its roots, stems, leaves and seeds. Several varieties of cultivated celery are grown for their while fleshy stalks. It yields 20cals per 100g. . The stalks are eaten raw with salt, in mixed salads. The leaves fresher dried can serve as garnish for salads, soups sauces. Celery salt in extracted from dried celeriac roots a used as a condiment for tom juice.
CHIVE (PIC AVAILABLE)
An alliaceous plant related to spring onion, that produces small elongated bulbs and clumps of tubular green leaves. The leaves of the plant are used either fresh or dried for flavouring soups and salads. It has delicate onion flavour. E.g. Vichyssoise - cold leek and potato flavored soup gar and chives.
DILL (SHEPU)
Dill leaves are used as a culinary herb and seeds are used in cooking in North Africa the USSR and Scandinavia. Dill in also used to make an aromatic vinegar and flavouring for various pickles.
FENNEL (SAUNF)
An aromatic umbelliferous plant of Mediterranean region. It grows to a height of 1.2—1.5 m. The feathery leaves and seeds have a slight aniseed flavour. The leaves are also used or a garnish the bulb can be used raw in salads or it can be cooked.
MARJORAM
A herb of which the there are various types the most popular being sweet marjoram and wild marjoram is more commonly known as oregano . Sweet marjoram is one of the most favoured herbs in cookery; it has a strong aromatic scent but a fairly delicate flavour. To avoid losing flavor it is best added at the end of the cooking period. Oregano has a much more pungent flavour than marjoram and is popular in Greece and Italian cookery. When dried, both sweet and wild marjoram become much stronger in flaovur and should be used sparingly.
MINT
There are many varieties of mint. There are over 25 varieties of mint. Same of them are as follows:
1) Water mint
2) Horse mint
3) Cologne mint
4) Japanese mint
5) Pepper mint
6) Garden mint is the most common used leaves are used to flavour sauces,
Salads and to season roast lamb. Mint cab be used either fresh / dried min will retain its flavour for 02 years if stored in airtight containers.
ROSEMARY
An aromatic shrub native to Mediterranean whose evergreen leaves are used either fresh / dried as they have a very pungent taste, they are need for flavouring . Name comes form Latin word Rosmmarinus . Combines well with veal, also used in some tomato soacues. In addition a sprig of rosemary gives flavour to milk used for desert.
TARRAGON
This plant has a bright green attractive leaf. It is best used fresh, particularly when decorating chaud froid dishes. Tarragon has a pleasant flavour and is used in sauces; one well known e.g. is sauce Béarnaise.
SAGE
Sage is strong bitter, pungent herb which aids in digestion of rich fatty meats and is therefore used for shiffing s. The different varieties of sage are 1) Garden sage 2) Provengale sage. 3) Catalonian Sage 4) Clary sage.
SPICES
Spices are natural products obtained from fruits, seeds, roots, flowers or the bark of a number of different trees or shrubs. They contain oils which aid digestion by stimulating the gastric juices. As spices are concentrated in flavour, they should be used sparingly; otherwise they can make the food unpalatable. Most spices are grown in India, Africa, W. Indies and Far East.
ALLSPICE
This is the berry of ‘Eugenia Pimenta’ a small tree grown in the West Indies .The berries are gathered when green and unripe and dried in the sun. These berries combine flavour of cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon Hence it is called allspice. It is also known as ‘Jamaica Pepper’.
CLOVES (LAVANG)
The sun dried flower bud of the clove tree used since ancient times as a spice. Brown and hard, loves are abront ½ in long with a head 1/6 in diameter. The word is taken from the French word ‘Clou’ meaning nail which describes its shape.
Cloves has medicinal properties also .The oil of cloves is used in dentistry to soothe headaches and its antiseptic properties are well known cloves are used in both Indian and western dishes both sweet and savory e.g. pulaows , onions studded with cloves is used in preparation of Béchamel sauce , braised and boiled meat dishes , fruit salads etc.
NUTMEG AND MACE (JAIPHAL)
These are the only known cases of two different spices from the same fruit. What we call nutmeg is the seed of a fruit which resembles an apricot. This set is protected by a thin outer covering which is dried to obtain mace. Although the aroma is similar for N&M, separate used exist for both. When buying nutmegs choose those which are round, compact of oily appearance and heavy for thin size.
MUSTARD (RYE)
An herbaceous plant originating from the Mediterranean region. Mustard seeds are the seeds the plant and mustard powder is the powder of the seeds. There are 3 varieties of mustard.
1) Black Mustard
2) Brown Mustard
3) White Mustard
When mustard is used a a spice, it is used whole e.g. Seeds. When seeds are powdered it becomes a condiment. The pungency of mustard is brought water. In India it is used whole for tempering dishes and in pickles. It is also an important ingredient in certain masalas e.g. indaloo. Mustard when used as a condiment can be flavoured in different ways e.g. with tarragon, garlic, fine herbs, paprika etc. The best known and most widely used mustard is DIJON MUSTRD is produced in the dijon region of France .
CINNAMON (DALCHINI)
A spice obtained from the bark of several topical trees. The bark is removed dried and rolled up to make up a tube fawn or dark brown in colour . Popular varieties of cinnamon are from and Shrilanks and chine. The best cinnamon should be as thin as paper. It has a fragrant odour and its taste is pleasant and aromatic in Frace, it is chiefly used to flavor desserts . In Indian and Far East uses are much more numerous.
CARDAMOM (ELAICHI)
This is a fruit of a need like plant grown chiefly along the malabar coast of india . The fruit is a small pod and seeds within pro have a strong sweetish flavour. Cardamom finds a variety of uses in Indian cookery e.g. In pulaos, rich gravies. Masalas powdered car cardamom is use din cakes, puddings etc.
PEPPER
A condiment derived from the pepper plant (Piper nigrum) a climbing vine native to India, jara.The pepper is the fruit of the plant. Peppercorns harvested at various stages of maturity provide the full.
Types of Pepper
Black
Very strong and pungent
Green
Unripe peppercorns sold dried or pickled less pungent and more fruity
White
Ripe with enter husk removed by rubbing in salt water
Cayenne
Dried fruits of capsicum plant grown in cayenne Islands
Pepper is sold either whole (i.e. pepper corns) or ground. Ground Pepper quickly loses its flavour and aroma.
PEPPER IN COOKING
Whole pepper corns are used in court- bouillons, marinades, pates etc. Crushed pepper is used for grilled meats, forcemeats hashes etc.
CORIANDER (DHANIA)
The plant is called ‘corianderum satium’ and is related to the parsley family. The seeds of the plant are used as a spice. Coriander leaves are commonly known as drab parsley or chinese parsley in France and are used especially for garnishing. it can also be used in preparation of certain meat dishes e.g. Nilgiri khorma.
TURMERIC (HALDI)
The aromatic root of a plant growing in India and West Indies sold in root form and as powder. Turmeric is member of ginger family fruit has a different flavor. It is used extensively in Indian cookery for imparting colour and flavour to curries.
GINGER (ADRAK)
This is the tuberous root of plant and is one of the few species that grow underground.The most common use of ginger is to make Masalas, drinks e.g. Singer ter and in confectionery such as ginerbiscuitts , cookies etc. When selecting singer points to note are it should be free dirt, skin should be smooth and of light brown colour and should give off the flavoner when burnished slightly
CUMIN SEEDS (JEERA SEEDS)
This is a herbs of the caraway type producing seeds of a pleasant small and flavour which are very popular. The seeds come form the fruit of the cumin plant. Added to curry powder or fried whole for seasoning or tempering
KITCHEN ORGANIZATION AND LAYOUT
KITCHEN ORGANISATION
The organization of kitchens will vary, mainly due to the size and the type of the establishment. Obviously, where a kitchen has hundred Chefs preparing for banquets for up to 1000 people and a lunch and dinner service for 300-400 customers with a la carte menu, the organization will be quite different from a small restaurant doing thirty table d'hote lunches or a hospital diet kitchen preparing diets.
Even when there are two kitchens of a similar nature, the internal organization may vary, as each Chef de Cuisine will have his own way of running his kitchen. It has been found most satisfactory in organizing the work of a kitchen to divide it into "Parties' or "Corners".
The parties system was perfected by Escoffier and it was the result of studying about the food production and the recipes allocating tasks to different specialists so as to help produce the more complex dishes regularly, efficiently and swiftly. The kitchen was divided into sections, each one of which was responsible for a particular contribution to the entire food production system.
In the kind of kitchen Escoffier organized, the parties system reached the height
of complexity because the end-products had to be of the highest finish and yet be completed to order in rapid sequence for a substantial number of customers. A set pattern was made.
Basically the principles of kitchen organization represent a standard practice though there are no set rules for deciding how many sections and how many staff a particular kitchen requires. Each catering establishment has different factors to be taken into consideration such as extent of menu, number of persons to be served and management policy.
A large kitchen, which caters for a large number, will have more sections than a smaller kitchen catering for lesser numbers. The number of staff in a section is determined by the amount of work to be done and importance of the contribution of the section to the menus and the skill of work. The base of different kitchen organizations is taken from the Traditional Kitchen Organization that was pioneered by Auguste Escoffier, the instigator of the partie or corner system. He had many sections such as grill, roast, vegetable, fish, sauce, soup, larder, patisseur etc. As everything was done manually it was necessary but now the sections have become fewer, because of labour-saving machines, convenience foods and combined catering equipment (microwave cum convection ovens, etc.), and the changing of public taste, which seeks simpler menus and meals.
Latest trends are that the kitchen organizations vary with almost every establishment. In former times there were specialized large staffs called brigades. The various sections were being clubbed together to suit the establishments.
Many kitchens use fresh food, ready to cook and sometimes ready to serve. This speeds the preparation and cooking times. The kitchens have become smaller and cook more versatile. New establishments employ less cooks.
KITCHEN STAFF
The team of cooks and their assistants under the partie system is commonly called the KITCHEN BRIGADE.
Specialists head the parties and with their assistants help produce complex dishes with great speed and efficiency. All the heads of the parties come under the control of the Chef de Cuisine (Head) aided by one or more sous chefs. In small establishments, head of the larder or sauce section acts as Sous Chef. The organization of various kitchens under partie system is as illustrated on page 248.
DUTIES OF KITCHEN STAFF
CHEF DE CUISINE
The Chef carries the full responsibilities for his kitchen. He must be both cook and administrator, i.e. as well as being able to cook, an authority on culinary matters, he needs to be capable of quick service and maintaining discipline. He must have a strict sense of economy and efficiency. He should be fully acquainted with the prices, market trends and commodities in season and customer requirements. His principal function is to plan, organize and supervise the work of the kitchen.
He prepares a pre-determined percentage of profit and work in accordance with the policy of the establishment.
He is responsible for staffing, selection and dismissal in conjunction with the Personnel Department. If need be, he should train the trainee cooks.
Modern experts favour relieving the Chef from the details of purchasing so that he can concentrate on more important aspects of managing his kitchen and attending to the actual food production side. Purchasing is becoming specialized and is vital to the economic structure of the undertaking. It is done in consultation and co-operation with the Chef.
The Chef is responsible for the staffing of the kitchen and for the organization of duty rosters. The Chef concerns himself with the quality of food and its presentation. He is the departmental head and is responsible to the management.
SOUS CHEF
The assistant head chef understudies the Head Chef in all his duties. It is the Sous chef who calls up the order from the kitchen and supervises the service. He is mainly responsible for the efficient day-to-day functioning of the kitchen.
The Sous chef supervises the practical kitchen activities. When the chef is busy and he can make ad hoc staff changes during the working day to reliever pressure.
In large establishments there are a number of Sous chefs, especially when there are separate kitchens like grillroom, restaurant, and banquet service.
CHEF DE PARTIE
For the different sections in the kitchen, there is a “Chef de Partie” i.e. roast cook, larder cook, etc. Each chef de party is assisted according to the production load, by one or more commis cooks; first, second, third commis and also trainees. It is sometimes the practice, where long operating hours apply, for the working period, to be split up between the chef de partie and his first commis, though the chef de partie is entirely responsible for his partie throughout the working period. Alternatively there may be two separate and complete “brigades” rotating upon an a.m. and a p.m. basis. This system is very much flavoured, since it does away with split duties.
The entire Chef de Parties may be regarded as supervisors or foremen of their sections as well as skilled craftsmen.
CHEF SAUCIER (SAUCE COOK)
The sauce cook is usually the “star” party because it is most complex. The Chef Saucier will be Sous Chef in the making and will eventually rise to Chef de Cuisine. It is here that all the sauces, meat; poultry entrees are prepared together with the necessary garnishes. He prepares his own mise-en-place, for many items he will receive, steaks prepared from larder, etc. The sauces prepared must be distinctive but not overpowering.
CHEF ROTTISEUR (ROAST COOK)
He is responsible for the production of all roasts and grills of meat, poultry and game, grilled and deep-fried fish, deep fried vegetables, potatoes and savouries. He prepares sauces, accompaniments and garnishes for roasts and grills. In large establishments grilled items are the responsibility of the grillardin or grill cook. It is usual for the grill cook to work under the supervision of the roast.
CHEF POISSONNIER (FISH COOK)
The fish cook prepares all the fish entrees and the roast cook deals with all roasts and deep-fired foods. The fish prepared comes from the larder and the chef does the cooking, garnishing, saucing and the dishing of fish.
The repertoire of fish dishes and their accompanying sauces is a great experience, and training and judgment are required from this Chef.
CHEF POTAGER (SOUP COOK)
The soup cook prepares all types of soups, and is responsible for the garnishes accompanying the soups. The Chef sometimes begins work early, the work of the Potager is important as soup gives an impression of the meal to follow.
CHEF GARDE MANAGER (LARDER COOK)
The larder cook is the most spectacular and the busiest, because the work is never ending. As well as feeding the main kitchen with prepared foods for processing it has to keep the cold buffet supplied. It is a cold section and is the storehouse of the kitchen where all perishable foods are kept.
He has a wide range of work to do, as the larder have various subsections such as hors d’oeuvre, and a salad section, butchery section. The cold buffet work, sandwiches, canapés are his responsibility also.
CHEF ENTREMETTIER (VEGETABLE COOK)
The vegetable cook is responsible for the production of vegetables and potatoes.
CHEF PATISSIER (PASTRY COOK)
The pastry cook has different status but certainly not less than the sauce cook and the larder cook. His work is specialized and he prepares hot and cold pudding, cakes, pastries, break etc. He is also responsible for special display work and the supply to the main kitchen of items of pastry.
CHEF DE BANQUET (BANQUET COOK)
In many of the large hotels with extensive banquet commitments, the brigade will carry a banquet chef and one or two commis.
The banquet chef is responsible for organizing the service, coordinating with the chefs de parties, the time and service, numbers for the arrival of various dishes to the service area. He will further arrange, to what point the dishes will be finished and make the necessary arrangements to carry out completion at the service point.
Sometimes this will mean his having to move his service staff from one service point to another, i.e. there may be an established banquet service point in the larder, another in the pastry section, apart from the main service area in the kitchen allocated for this purpose.
The banquet chef will co-ordinate with the banqueting manager regarding times, service numbers, special dishes required and special instructions to the waiters concerned.
CHEF TOURANT (RELIEF COOK)
He is relief chef de party. He takes over a section when its chef goes on leave or has and off day. Chef is usually a senior, capable commis as he has knowledge of the various sections.
CHEF DE PETIT DE JEUNER (BREAKFAST COOK)
He commences his duty very early. He does not rank as a chef de partie but nevertheless needs to be of good skill, within limited field. He is responsible for the complete breakfast service. Afterwards he has to complete his mis-en-place for the following morning. Sometimes he assists the soup or vegetable cook.
CHEF COMMUNAR (STAFF COOK)
In small establishment different chefs de parties prepare the staff food.
In large establishments a separate section or a separate kitchen prepares the meals. Staff ordinarily prepares meals for lower or supervisory staff. All the executives have their meals in restaurants. Wholesome food and inexpensive meals are prepared.
KITCHEN PORTERS / COMMIS
The head porter controls the issue and collection of laundry to the kitchen personnel that is supplied by the establishment.
Although a lot of duties of the kitchen porter require little skill, by correct good training, they become most valuable members of the kitchen brigade.
SAUCE COOK ----Commis I,II,III---Porters------ Apperentices
( Le Chef Saucier)
ROAST COOK
(Le Rotisseur)
E
X FISH COOK
E ( Le poissonneir)
C S
U E GRILL COOK
T C (Le Grillardin)
I O
V N VEGETABLE COOK
E D ( L’entremettier)
SOUP COOK
C C (Le Potager)
H H COLD WORK COOK
E E (Le chef de froid)
F F
LARDER COOK HORS D’OEUVRE COOK
( Le chef de garde (Le Hord’oeuvrier)
manger)
BUTCHER
(Le Boucher)
PASTRY COOK BAKER ICECREAM
(Le Patisseaur) (Le Boulangere) (Le Glacier)
INDIAN SECTION COOK
HOT SECTION(Curries,Rice,Vegetablesetc.)
TANDOORI
HALWAI ( INDIAN SWEET COOK)
RELIEF COOK ASSISTANT RELIEF COOK
(Le chef de tourant) (Le commis tourant)
BREAKFAST COOK
(Le chef de petit dejeuner)
STAFF COOK
(Le communar)
BANQUET COOK
( Chef de banquet)
SECTIONS OF KITCHEN
LARDER
The word larder has in professional kitchens a much wider significance. The larder is not simply a place where food is stored but a place where the raw materials for cooking are prepared and dressed. In large establishments, the work is further broken into sections.
Functions of Larder Department
The larder is a room set aside for the storage of perishable foods, both raw and cooked, where food as meat, fish, poultry and game are prepared and made ready for cooking. In this department too, all cold 'items found on the menu, such as hors d'oeuvres, cold dish or meat dishes, cold salads, etc. are prepared and dressed. For these function to be effective, it is essential that:
1. The room should be separate from the kitchen situated in a cool place. At the same time, it must be close to the kitchen to avoid undue running about between the two departments which are closely interrelated.
2. It should be suitably lighted, well-ventilated and sufficiently open to allow the staff to perform their duties in a clean and efficient manner.
3. It must be equipped with the necessary fittings, plant, machinery and tools in accordance with the volume, and or quality of the trade of the catering establishment in which it is situated.
Breakdown of Work
Work is broken down into various fields such as salads, poultry, ; cold buffet, hors d'oeuvres, mousses, cold cuts, sandwiches, etc. . The butcher receives directions from the larder chef according to the commitments of the business. The butchery prepares various Joints in advance according to the menu requirements. Each day certain quantities of meat are trimmed to the first stage, (removal of excess fat, skin and other inedible parts). The butcher carries out further preparations to certain meat items, i.e. boning and trimming to bring it to the stage for final cutting and trimming. Each day a pre-arranged amount of meat is cut and trimmed to the final stages against the menu requirements. Usually in catering establishments with an extensive banqueting service, it will mean that the butcher will have a considerable amount of preparations in the stages mentioned above. By this method the section at all times is able to meet the requirement of the kitchen. In the larger kitchens, the larder section includes fishmonger, who will trim and prepare the dish ready for service and delivery. The chicken is dressed, trussed or cut according to requirements of the menu. Quenelle mixtures are also prepared here. Charcutiery (port section) pork products and sausages are prepared. Rendering of dripping is also done here. All cold buffets, including afternoon receptions are prepared in the larder. Chef de Froid controls the cold buffet section. An important part of the larder duties is the rapId supply of various prepared foods to the kitchen at all times especially during service periods. Salads are prepared and assembled in this section. Hors d'oeuvres are also made and trolley is replenished by the hors d’Oeuvre. Decorative cut vegetables are prepared and they are used for decorating ravieres.
LARDER CONTROL
If this department is to be run efficiently and economically, it is essential that chef larder manager should exercise the strictest possible control over the foodstuff received and stored in the department. This involves:
1. Checking the quality and quantity of all goods delivered to the larder.
2. Ensuring that all foodstuffs are stored at the required temperature and they can be easily checked.
3. That the food is protected from contamination by vermin.
4. That portion control is rigidly carried out, e.g. given weight of meat, or fish or vegetables, etc. should always produce the required number of portions of steaks, fish fillets, salads or hors d'oeuvres.
5. Those stocks of food are regularly turned over.
6. That food is not overstocked.
7. That daily stock sheet kept by each should be submitted to the chief larder manager at the end of the day to enable him to write out his orders for the following day.
8. Obviously every effort must be made to maintain highest possible standard of hygiene, to prevent any deterioration in the food under his control. Every precaution should be taken to discourage pilferage.
The Larder Chef, at a set time each day, notifies the Chef, of stocks, of cooked or raw materials remaining.
SAUCE SECTION
The sauce section is responsible for providing all meat, poultry. game and offal dishes with the exception of those that are plain roasted or grilled. All the meat dishes are cooked and garnished. The partie will also provide all basic and finished sauces served hot, that are normally required by the various parties in the kitchen. Normally, one first commences early duty to cover the preparations and cooking of dishes as "Plat de Jour" as these often require a cooking time of 3-4 hours. Braising, boiling, peeling is also done in this section. Similar to the fish partie an extensive part of the dishes are cooked and a variety of cooked garnishes are also prepared. Miseen-place for, banquets is also done here. The Chef Saucier does important work as he assembles dishes which have an impact on the customers.
ROAST SECTION
The roast section is responsible for providing all roast dishes of meat, poultry and game. It is responsible for all grilled dishes of meat, chicken, offal and fish, and this duty is often delegated to the grill cook. The section is also responsible for the preparation of a number of dishes and the deep frying of the food items. It also prepares and finishes any savories that are required.
FISH SECTION
This section is responsible for the provision of all fish dishes with the exception of those that are plain grilled or deep fried. The cleaning, descaIing, filleting, crumbling is done by the fishmonger in larder. Generally as a larger selection of fish are offered, an extensive mise-en-place is required. At each service period, the following basic sauces are made ready for service: béchamel, white wine sauce, fish velouté, hollandaise and melted butter. Further, a number of garnishes are prepared in advance to a part cooked stage, By this arrangement, a variety of fish dishes particularly the poached and meuniere types can be done. Grilling is done by the grill cook or commis.
VEGETABLE SECTION
An entrement course in France was the responsibility of the entrement of vegetables, who skillfully prepared and cooked vegetables, which could be served as a separate course. An entrement was originally something sent to the table between the courses in France. During the period before service, each day various quantities of vegetables are prepared, cooked, refreshed and placed into refrigerator. Peeling, cleaning and trimming are done by semi-skilled workers. Limited quantities of certain potato dishes are cooked and finished to varying degrees, kept ready when service begins. Vegetable garnishes are prepared here and given to other sections. The cooking of eggs forms an important part of the work in this section. Particularly, omelettes of various types, e.g. plain, garnished, stuffed and flat round omelettes. Italian pastas but not noodles are also prepared in this section. Items like spaghetti, macaroni and rice may be sent to other sections for garnishes. The mise-en-place is carried out according to menu requirements. By this method, the vegetable cook and senior commis are able to cope with the finishing and serving of a vast amount of different dishes. Management of cooking vegetables well for large numbers calls for particular knowledge, skill and judgment and should never be entrusted to an unskilled and disinterested cook.
SOUP SECTION
It is the responsibility of this section to prepare soups such as consommés, creams, velouté, purees, broths, bisques and many special international soups. All basic stocks are also prepared here. The cold soups are prepared and passed to the larder for service. The garnishes come from the larder and vegetable section.
INDIAN SECTION
This section is responsible for the preparation, of all Indian dishes. The work is subdivided into subsections such as: Indian (bread and rice, pulaos, biryanis, chappaties, puries, bhaturas, etc.), vegetables, (bhajees, curries), meat, (including eggs and fish), tandoor (seekh kababs, tandoor chicken, boti kababs), Indian sweets jalebis, rasgullas, rabri, etc.) Each day a variety of dishes are prepared according to menu requirements.
PASTRY SECTION
The work of this section is normally separated from the main kitchen and is self-contained in the matter of cold storage. The function of this section is to prepare hot and cold sweets, for lunches, dinners and pastries for tea-time and other occasions. It also prepares pastes like short and puff pastry, frying batters for making noodles for supply to other corners of the kitchen. Sorbets and water-ice like items are made in pastry section. The service of ices and those sweets which are based upon ice-cream are prepared and assembled in Patisserie. They also include the sweet omelettes au surprise and soufflé surprise, Melbas, etc. The art of pastry includes work like colored sugars to make flower baskets and similar decorative centre pieces, work with fondant and icing sugar, gum pastes, fashioning of praline into decorative objects. Where hotels operate a bakery section, the responsibility is carried out by the master baker. Normally one commis will commence early duty each day to provide the mise-en-place required by the various sections. The section needs workers with skill, imagination and experience.
PASTRY MISE-EN-PLACE
In common with the Larder and Kitchen Departments, the successful running of the pastry department depends on adequate mise-en-place. Mise-en-place must not be confused with stores, even though stores are, in fact, a form of mise-en-place in that they are ordered in advance and are, in fact, preparation department. To the production department, mise-en-place is the only method of preparing ahead. as the preparation of mincemeat and Christmas puddings is done in this manner, it is usual to make the pudding early in November. Briefly the following is the mise-en-place for kitchen and larder; it is only mentioned to prove the importance of mise-en-place.
Kitchen - stocks, sauces, béchamel, vegetables.
Larder - Joints of meat, poultry, fish, meat for pies, puddings, etc. In common with the Larder, the pastry is also a supplying department and the mise-en-place for these other departments must be taken into account. Tartlet cases, bouche'es, Nouilles, pie and pudding covering etc. The following is a list of the most essential pastry preparations:
Pastes -short, sweet, puff (left at four turns), brioche, pâté a' crepe
Creams -Butter-cream, frangipane, crème patisseur, creamed rice
The above should always be available, and kept in the refrigerator but not a freezing point; 40° is cold enough. Pastes become very difficult to manipulate if they are frozen. The butter-cream is used for various gateaux, creamed rice for Condes, baked rice pudding (a'la carte). The pancake batter is also for a' la carte service. Crèmes, Patisseur has many uses, being a quick source of sweet soufflés and weakened down for trifles, sauces, etc. It is an advantage to have a supply of crème caramels for they are in constant demand as a' la carte-sweets. Coryotes of fruit are used in the main meals and the mise-en place must include figs and prunes as they are in constant demand at breakfast. Naturally, tinned fruit should be used only when fruits are out of season. Genoise, Swiss Rolls, finger biscuits, meringues, and vacherins are essential mise-en-place for the easy preparation for gateaux, trifles, meringue, Chantilly or glace Charlotte Russe, etc. Pastries can either be partly prepared in the form of frangipane tartIets, barquettes, etc. or the tartlet cases lined with paste and finished the following day, in the same method as such things as volau-vent, bouche, fleurons, etc. Dry petit fours in the form of macaroons, langues des chats, etc. as also pastilles de menthe, fudge, coconut kisses are easily stored, and leaving only the fondant and sugar dipped varieties to be completed on the day of use. If ice creams in their many forms are made on the premises, they should be made in advance: this includes bombes, biscuits, biscuit glace, and soufflés.
LAYOUT OF KITCHEN
PLACEMENT AND FLOW OF WORK
FUELS
Any source of heat energy is termed as fuel. The term fuel includes all combustible substances obtained in bulk. Fuel is a substance which produces a large amount of heat when burnt with oxygen of the atmospheric air. Fuels are primarily used for heating purpose.
TYPES OF FUEL
Fuels are of following types
Solid Fuel
Coal, Peat, Lignite, Wood, Coke, Anthracite, Bituminous
Liquid Fuel
Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene, Coal tar, Molasses, Sprit, Shale oil
Gaseous Fuel
Methane, Coal gas, Producer gas, Compressed blast furnace gas,
Town gas, Water gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas.
Electricity
Electricity used in producing heat. E.g. Heating element
QUALITIES OF GOOD FUEL
The good fuel should have following qualities:
Should have low ignition point.
Should has high calorific value
Should produce minimum quantity of smoke
Should be easy to store and transport
Should have moderate rate of combustion
Should have low content of volatile material
Should not produce poisonous products on combustion
Should be available readily and plentiful
SOLID FUEL
Advantages of solid fuel
1. They are east to transport
2. They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion
3. Their cost of production is low
4. They posses moderate ignition temperature
5.
Disadvantages of solid fuel
1. Their ash contents are high
2. Combustion efficiency is low
3. They have low calorific value
4. Large space is required for their storage
5. Their combustion operation can not be controlled
LIQUID FUEL
Advantages of Liquid fuel
Storage space required is minimum
They have high calorific value
Fuels do not deteriorate during storage
Their flames can be controlled
They have low ignition temperature
Disadvantages of Liquid fuel
Heat produced is costly
Requires costly and special storage tank
They give bad odour
Burners chocking is possible
GASEOUS FUEL
Advantages of Gaseous fuel
They have higher calorific value
They can be lighted at moments notice
Conveyed easily through pipe lines
Burns without ash and smoke
Cleanliness in use
Disadvantages of Gaseous fuel
Very large storage tank is needed
They are highly inflammable
The risk of explosion is associated with gaseous fuels
SAUCES
Sauce is a liquid, having smooth and glossy appearance, definite in taste and light in texture; thickening is done in moderation.
USES OF SAUCES
1. To enhance the flavour of the food
2. To give colour to food
3. Help in digestion
4. Moisten dry food
5. Enhance nutritional value of food
6. Lend a name to dish e.g. fish Portuguese
7. Give a balanced taste
THICKENING AGENTS FOR SAUCES
Thickening agents used for SAUCES are as under:
1. Roux
2. Beurre manie
3. Starch
4. Egg yolk
5. Puree
6. Blood
7. Glazes
ROUX
A roux is a combination of Fat and Flour which are cooked together. Roux is of type:
1. White roux
2. Blond roux
3. Brown roux
BEURRE MAINE
Equal quantity of Butter or Margarine and Flour kneaded to a smooth paste and added to boiling liquid.
STARCH
Starch such as corn flour, arrowroot, potato starch etc. are used to thicken sauce or gravy.
EGG YOLK
Egg yolk is used in emulsified sauces such as mayonnaise, hollandaise and custard sauces.
PUREE
Vegetable or fruit puree is known as CULLIS used in thickening.
BLOOD
Blood is used in recipes such as jugged hare
GLAZES
Stock reduced base sauces are prepared using demi-glaze
CLASSIFICATION OF SAUCES
SAUCE
MOTHER SAUCE
PROPRIETARY SAUCE
MISCELLANEOUS SAUCE
HOT
COLD
WHITE
BROWN
BÉCHAMEL
VOLUTE
ESPAGNOLE
TOMATO
CURRY, GRAVY,
MAYONNAISE
COMPOUND BUTTER
HOLLANDAISE
BASIC MOTHER SAUCES
Basic mother sauces are:
n BÉCHAMEL
n VELOUTÉ
n ESPAGNOLE
n TOMATO
n HOLLANDAISE
n MAYONNAISE
BÉCHAMEL
A white sauce prepared by adding milk to roux.
This sauce is widely used for egg, vegetables and gratin dishes. It can be kept warm in bain-marie and used to prepare other derivatives
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Margarine / oil / Butter 100Gms.
Flour 100Gms.
Milk 1000 Ml.
Studded onion 1 Nos.
METHOD
Met fat in thick bottom pan.
Add flour and mix well.
Cook for few minutes over a gentle heat with out coloring.
Remove from heat and cool the roux.
Gradually add the warm milk and stir till smooth.
Add onion studded with clove and allow simmering for 30 Min. remove from heat and take out onion and strain.
Cover with thin film of butter to prevent skin formation.
DERIVATIVES OF BÉCHAMEL
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Mornay
Béchamel + Parmesan + Egg yolk
Fish, Eggs & Vegetables
Cream
Béchamel + Fresh cream + Butter
Poached Fish, Boiled Vegetable.
Soubise
Béchamel, Sautéed Onion, Pepper + Nutmeg and strained
Eggs, Fish, Roast Meat
Scotch egg
Béchamel + 2 Hard Boiled egg, diced
Poached/Boiled Fish
Parsley
Béchamel + Fresh Cream + Chopped Parsley
Poached/Boiled Fish, Veg
Anchovy
Béchamel + Anchovy Essence
Poach/Boil/Fry Fish
Onion
Béchamel + minced Onion cooked in milk
Roast Mutton
Mustard
Béchamel + French/English Mustard
Grilled Herrings
VELOUTÉ
A sauce prepared from white stock and blond roux.
It can be kept warm in bain-marie and used to prepare other derivatives.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Margarine / oil / Butter 100Gms.
Flour 100Gms.
Stock 1000 Ml.
METHOD
Melt fat in thick bottom pan.
Add flour and mix well.
Cook to a sandy texture over a gentle heat with out coloring.
Remove from heat and cool the roux.
Gradually add the boiling stock and stir till smooth.
Allow to simmer for approximately 1Hrs.
Remove from heat and strain
DERIVATIVES OF VELOUTÉ
CHICKEN VELOUTÉ
NAME OF SAUCE
I NGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Supreme
Chicken Velouté + White wine + Parsley +Shallots + Mushroom trimmings & strain add Fresh Cream + Egg yolk +Lemon juice
Fish Chicken
Allemande
Chicken Velouté + Egg yolk + Mushroom trimmings + Cream + Lemon juice
Poached Chicken
Ivory
Sauce supreme + Meat Glaze
Poached/Boiled Chicken
Mushroom
Sauce supreme + sliced Button Mushroom
Chicken, Mutton
Chaudfroid
Chicken Velouté + Chicken glaze + Cream
Cold dishes
Chivry
Chicken Velouté + Tarragon +Parsley +Chives then strain + Green Butter
Boiled/Poached Poultry
MEAT / FISH VELOUTÉ
Shrimp
Fish velouté + fish fumet + cream + shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter
Fish Shrimp
Normande
Fish velouté + mushrooms + oyster liquor +fish fumet finished with egg yolk cream + shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter
Fish & Shell Fish
Diplomat
Normande sauce + Lobster butter garnished with dices of lobster and truffles
Fish Shellfish
Caper
Mutton velouté + caper
Boiled leg of Mutton
Bercy
Allemande Sauce + chopped shallots +white wine + meat glaze + butter garnished with dices of marrow & chopped parsley
Grilled meat
Nantua
Fish velouté + fried mirepoix fish in crayfish butter
Fish Shellfish
ESPAGNOLE
A sauces made by adding brown stock to brown roux and mirepoix and tomato puree.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Margarine / oil / Butter 50 Gms.
Flour 60 Gms.
Brown Stock 1000 Ml.
Tomatos puree 25 Gms.
Carrot 100 Gms.
Onion 100 Gms.
Celery 50 Gms.
METHOD
Met fat in thick bottom pan.
Add flour and mix well to a light brown colour, stirring frequently.
Cool and mix the tomato puree. Gradually add the boiling stock and bring to boil.
Wash, peal and roughly cut the vegetables and brown lightly, drain extra fat and add to sauce.
Simmer for 4-6 Hrs. and Skim when necessary.
DERIVATIVES OF ESPAGNOLE
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Bercy
Demi glaze + meat glaze + Minced shallots + white wine + sliced bone marrow
Grilled Meat Fish
Chasseur
Demi glaze + minced mushroom + sautéed chopped shallots & Parsley + reduced w. wine
grilled/sautéed M P Egg
Robert
Demi glaze + chopped onion + vinegar + sugar + mustard
Grilled Meat
Charcutiere
Robert sauce + juliennes of Gherkin
Grilled Pork chops
Madeira
Demi glaze + Madeira wine
Small items of M F P
TOMATO
A sauce made by cooking tomatoes with bacon, carrots, chopped onion and garlic in stock and passed through sieve.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Margarine / oil / Butter 10 Gms.
Flour 10 Gms.
Stock 375 Ml.
Tomatos puree 50 Gms.
Carrot 50 Gms.
Onion 50Gms.
Celery 25 Gms
Bacon strips 10 Gms.
Bay leaf, Thyme, clove, garlic, salt & Pepper
METHOD
Met fat in thick bottom pan.
Add the herbs and mirepoix and Bacon scrap brown lightly.
Mix the flour and cook to sandy texture and colour slightly.
Mix tomato puree and allow cooling.
Gradually add boiling stock.
Stir and add garlic, seasoning and simmer for 1 Hrs.
Correct the seasoning and cool. Pass through strainer.
DERIVATIVES OF TOMATO
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Bretonne
Tomato sauce + sauteed chopped onions +White wine à reduce & strained add Butter and chopped Parsley
Haricots
Portugaise
Tomato sauce + White wine + garlic +tomato concasse
Egg, Fish, Shell Fish
Italienne
Tomato sauce + demi-glaze + chopped shallots, Mushroom, Lean Ham & fine herbs
Brains, Lamb, Cutlets
Barbecue
Tomato sauce + ketchup + vinegar + Sugar
Barbecued MFP
Tomato-Chaudfroid
Tomato sauce + aspic jelly
cold chicken and Eggs
Provencale
Thin Tomato sauce + sauteed sliced mushroom + chopped Parsley, Garlic, Tomato Concasse + Sugar
With cold MFP
HOLLANDAISE
A hot emulsified sauce made from egg yolk and clarified butter.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Butter 200 Gms.
Egg yolk 200 Gms.
Crushed Pepper Corn 2 Nos.
Vinegar 15 Ml.
Lemon juice ½
METHOD
Melt butter in a pan.
Place crushed peeper corn and Vinegar and reduce.
Add little water to cool.
Add egg yolk and whisk.
Place the pan in a double boiler and whisk the egg yolk till it gets cooked.
Gradually add the melted butter until it blends and forma a thick sauce.
Add lemon juice.
Strain and correct the seasonings.
DERIVATIVES OF HOLLANDAISE
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Maltaise
Hollandaise + Zest + Orange juice
Hot Asparagus
Mousseline
Hollandaise + stiffly whipped Cream
Fish, Egg, Vegetable & Meat
Noisette
Hollandaise + nut brown cooked butter
Poached Salmon, Trout
Béarnaise
Hollandaise + chopped Tarragon& Chervil
Grilled MF
Choron
Béarnaise sauce + Tomato puree
Grilled & Sauteed Meat
Foyot
Béarnaise sauce + meat glaze
Grilled & Sauteed Meat
Mustard
Hollandaise + mustard
Meat, Steak
MAYONNAISE
A cold emulsified sauce consisting of egg yolks and oil blended together and flavored with vinegar, salt, pepper and mustard.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Salad oil 1000 Ml.
Egg yolk 8 Eggs
Mustard ¼ table spoon
Vinegar 25 Ml.
Lemon 1 Nos.
Seasonings to taste
METHOD
Place the egg yolk, vinegar & seasonings in a clean bowl.
Whisk well.
Slowly add oil and whisk continuously until all oil is incorporated.
Finnish it by adding juice of lemon and warm water.
DERIVATIVES OF MAYONNAISE
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Cambridge
Pounded hard-boiled eggs + anchovy fillets +capers + chervil + tarragon + chives + vinegar +Cayenne pepper, add oil gradually as for mayonnaise, strain + chopped parsley
cold meat
Tartare
Mayonnaise + hard yolk of eggs, garnished with finely chopped onion and chives
Fried fish / shellfish
Green Sauce
Mayonnaise sauce mixed with puree of blanched herbs, spinach, water parsley, chervil, tarragon. Pass through very fine sieve
Cold fish & shellfish
Vincent
Equal quantity of Tartare & Green Sauce
Cold fish & Shellfish
Thousand Island-
Dressing
Mayonnaise + hard boiled eggs + tomato ketchup + chopped gherkins + onions +pimentos, olives + paprika powder
Cold Meat
Cocktail
Mayonnaise + tomato ketchup + Worcester sauce + Tabasco + cream + lemon juice
Shellfish
The aim or the intention of cooking is to see that the food cooked undergoes a physical change, sometimes a chemical change and is acceptable.
The object of cooking is to achieve certain results such as:
To facilitate and hasten digestion, so that the cooked food is absorbed by the digestive system and subsequently assimilated by the body. This is largely determined in the manner the food is cooked. During the cooking process, it breaks down the cellulose in plant food, softens some of the connective tissues of meat, breaks down and gets starches present. The alteration is brought about in texture, by physical and chemical changes thus assisting mastication.
A physical change occurs when a substance changes its form, colour or size, but still remains that same substance, like water that changes to ice. A chemical change occurs when a substance changes its form, colour or size, combining so as to form an entirely new body, e.g. green marrow changes its colour and milk changes to curd.
EFFECT OF COOKING
The effect of cooking upon the three chief constituents of food proteins, carbohydrates and fats-is visible in their increased digestibility.
PROTEINS
The protein of meat (myosin), of egg (albumen), of wheat (gluten), of pulse (legumin) is coagulated by heat. Avoid high temperatures as the protein hardens, denatures and shrinks and the food becomes indigestible. The connective tissue is converted into gelatine which is soluble in water and rendered digestible. The proteins' biological value is improved by moderate heating.
CARBOHYDRATES
STARCH in food is greatly affected by heat. By moist heat, it is converted first into a soluble form and then by extreme heat into a new substance, sweetish in flavour-dextrin as in the crust of bread.
Moist heat causes the starch grains to swell; it gelatinizes at a temperature below boiling point of water, the degree of heat varying with the kind of starchy food.
CELLULOSE is softened by the application of moist heat.
SUGAR when heated in water dissolves, then colors, upon further heating, turns brown and becomes a caramel and emits a lovely flavour, but does not crystallize.
Moderate heat does not cause much loss of mineral salts and vitamins, except vitamin C.
FATS
If heated to a very high degree for a long time, fats undergo partial decomposition and fatty acids and glycerol are produced. Glycerol further decomposes into Acer Olin which is an irritating compound to the digestive system.
Cooking pleases the eye and is receptive to the palate and helps to stimulate the digestive juices, thereby creating an appetite. On application of heat, the red coloring matter such as hemoglobin in meat decomposes and changes the red colour to brown. Flavors are developed, which stimulate the digestive juices. The colour of the vegetables is brightened. Green vegetables fast boiled without a lid, improve the green colour. Cauliflower when boiled, in acidic medium, gets a white refreshed look.
Cooking sterilizes the food partially. Cooked food can be stored for a longer time and it prevents food poisoning and diseases when stored properly. Some of the diseases producing germs are killed by cooking. They are killed because of high temperature during the cooking process. A temperature of 60° (140°F) applied over 30 or more minutes, kills most of the pathogenic germs, however, there are some spore germs which are not destroyed by the usual cooking temperature: they take about 4 to 5 hours to get destroyed at a high temperature. High temperature penetrates to the centre or interior of food, especially in pork, beef and mutton.
4. Cooking retains, as far as possible, the nutritive and flavoring ingredients. The flavour depends upon the amount and kind of extractives present, and the acids developed. Nutritive value is enhanced if the fat proportion in the meat is more. While cooking, the nutrition could be preserved by using the cooking liquor.
Cooking gives a variety to the menu, as one food item could be cooked in various ways and given different textures, e.g. mutton in a soup, roast joint, croquettes. Stews, steaks, keema, sookha meat, boti kababs etc. Different methods of cooking when used make the menu interesting and enhance variety. It is. Therefore, easier to plan a balanced diet.
6. Cooking preserves food for a longer time. The high temperature destroys bacteria and limits spoilage.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RAW MATERIALS
For the preparation of good, tasty, colorful dishes, it is essential to have a basic knowledge of the raw materials, their characteristics and the special part they play. This knowledge helps to substitute’s materials when necessary, or rectify the texture and taste if something goes wrong. Also it helps to improve the quality and get the standard end product.
The raw materials are thus classified according to the part they play in making up a dish:
(1) Salt (4) Fats & Oils (7) Flavoring and Seasonings
(2) Liquids (5) Raising agent (8) Eggs
(3) Sweetening (6) Thickenings
SALT
It brings out the flavour of other ingredients. The other name for salt is sodium chloride; it is readily available in a solid (rock salt) or in a solution form (sea salt). Salt, having a distinctive taste, transforms an insipid dish to a wonderful dish. It should be used skillfully, or too much of it could spoil the dish.
Salt is available in 3 forms:
Table salt containing phosphate
Coarse or Freezing salt for culinary purpose.
Celery salt it is a blend of celery root and ordinary salt and is purchased ready prepared. It is used for flavoring certain dishes as an alternative to fresh celery or celery seed.
USES OF SALT
1. Use of the correct amount of salt improves the flavour of the savory dishes and when a little is added to the sweet dishes, it enhances the flavour.
2. It has a physical effect on the gluten of flour and strengthens gluten and increases its resistance to the softening effect of fermentation.
3. Cauliflower, when put in salted water, makes the insects come out.
4. It has a controlling effect on the activity of yeast in bakery products. It controls fermentation and hence it has marked effect on crumb, crust and colour of baked products.
5. Salt added to water, for cooking green vegetables, helps in colour retention and enhances the taste.
6. Salting is one of the oldest popular methods of preserving ham, bacon, fish etc.
7. Salt is essential for good health.
LIQUIDS
Liquids are important as they are used for the purpose of cooking, binding and coating etc. Milk, water, stock and fruit juices are the most commonly used liquids. They prevent food from burning, bind dry ingredients and help in maintaining the right consistency. Water and milk are used for preparing poaching liquor (court bouillon) soups, sauces, gravies, cakes and pastry mixtures and pastry mixtures and kneading of dough, etc. Buttermilk is used for curries. kadi, etc. Stock is a liquid containing soluble nutrients and flavors, which are extracted by prolonged and gentle simmering (except fish stock20 mins.). They are used as the foundation of soups, sauces, gravies, curries, poaching liquors and many important kitchen preparations. It is important that the correct amount of liquid should be used, or too much would make the food stodgy, soggy or watery.
SWEETENING
When sweetening is used with other foods it enhances the combined sensations of odour and flavour of the dish produced. It also adds its own sweetness, and is a versatile food product. Its uses in the kitchen are varied, Substitution of one sugar (castor, icing) for another in a baking formula, gives allowance for the difference in the sweetening effect. Sweetening is available in various forms-granulated, fine-grained, and powdered and in a solution form. Sugars vary in their sweetening quality and are available in the following forms:
Ø Granulated sugar Ø Castor sugar Ø Icing sugar
Ø Lactose (milk sugar) Ø Cane syrup Ø Maple syrup
Ø Treacle Ø Honey Ø Golden syrup.
FUNCTIONS
1. Low concentration of sugar speeds the effectiveness of baker's yeast by providing an immediate, fast cooking course of nourishment for its growth-thus hastening the leavening process.
2. The ability of sugar to crystallize, gives a delightful variety in cookery.
3. Sugar gives puddings, breads, buns and bread rolls a good flavour (caramel), the characteristic golden brown colour, and a tender and even texture.
4. Fermentation is aided by sugar in brewing, wine-making and in the distillation of spirits.
5. Sugar has long been used as a preservative. it is an effective preservative and can dissolve in water at very high concentration.
6. It is an energy food and can be stored for a long time without getting spoilt.
SUGAR USED IN BAKERY
Stock Sugar Syrup
500 gm Cube sugar 120 gm Glucose 1 litre Water
Boil all the ingredients together in a clean Sugar boiler. Strain through a cloth into a basin and keep covered.
METHOD AND TEMPERATURES OF COOKING
Take the required amount from the Stock Sugar and boil to the correct temperature between 116° and 160°F. Keep the side of the pot clean during the boiling, by washing the sides frequently with water. DO NOT STIR Add a few drops of lemon juice and shake well.
PULLED SUGAR
Pour on to a slightly oiled marble slab, allow to cool slightly, with a knife turn the sugar over folding, together, work the sugar with the hand to a pliable consistency. Aniline powder is best for this type of work, being very strong in colour and easily dissolved in warm water. The colour is added to the cooked sugar when poured onto the marble slab and before working with hands.
DEGREES AND STAGES OF COOKING THE SUGAR
116°C Soft Ball Suitable for Marzipan
119°C Ball Suitable for Fondant
121°C Hard Ball Suitable for Nougat
140°C Small crake Suitable for Italian Meringue
153°C Crack Suitable for Dipping Fruit
160°C Hard crack Suitable for Pulled Sugar
FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils are nutritionally useful and in some form, economical sources of energy and give a satiety value to the dish. They also contribute characteristic palatability, qualities of flavour and texture. They are popularly used as the medium of cooking. Fats are solid at ordinary temperature and melt when heated. Oils are liquids at ordinary temperature. Only coconut oil solidifies at low temperature. Various fats used in cooking are -lard (pig's fat), suet (fat around kidneys), dripping (Tallow Beef fat), butter, margarine, ghee, hydrogenated fat, cocoa butter (for confectionery).Oils are extracted from coconut, palm, sesame, cotton seed, olive, peanut, mustard, corn and sunflower. Salad oil is a deodorized vegetable oil and is used for salad dressings, etc. as olive oil-the best for the purpose - is very expensive and scarce. Fats and oils are used for various purposes, the major culinary part played by them are as:
Ø Spreads Ø Shortenings Ø Salad dressings Ø Frying media Ø Tempering.
SPREADS
Butter and margarines are used for spreads, and their function is to add to the flavour, nutritional value and satiety value of breads.
SHORTENING
These are fats which shorten the gluten strands, surround them and make them more easily broken (short). When added to bread, it gives a bit of tenderness, richness and sheen to the crumb.
TEMPERING
Dals, curries, rice dishes, etc. are tempered. The fat or oil is heated to which cumin seeds or mustard, or fenugreek seeds, etc. is added and poured over the daIs.
SALAD DRESSINGS
Fat is used for the various salad dressings-Hot animal fat dressings, which consist of bacon fat, vinegar and seasonings, served hot, are used on green hot salads. Cooked dressing is a cooked mixture of egg, vinegar, fat, starch and seasonings. French dressings are emulsions of oil, vinegar or lemon juice and seasoning. Mayonnaise is an emulsion of oil, acid, egg yolk and seasoning.
FRYING MEDIUM
Fats and oils are used as a medium of cooking, i.e. pan roasting, frying, and sautéing. When fats or oils are heated, a temperature is reached at which visible fumes appear which is defined as smoke point. Fats with high smoke point are suitable for frying. Different fats do not have the same smoke point. The highest frying needed for any food is about 199°C (390°C). Hydrogenated fats have a high smoke point and are good as a frying medium compared to other fats. For the selection of a good fat, the following points should be remembered. A frying fat should have a high smoke point, low congealing point, high stability, low moisture content, and should have an acceptable flavour. Fats and oils have a high percentage of unsaturated fats and have more shortening power, than saturated fats. Animals’ fats such as butter, lard and suet make the food short, i.e. break off (short) and readily melt in the mouth. For the selection of shortening, the following factors should be observed:
1. Shortening should cream well or it will affect the cake volume.
2. It should have no moisture; then it will be short. Shortness is correlated to baking biscuits, cookies, pastries, wafers, mathies, nankhatais, nimkies etc.
3. The shortening should be stable and should not get rancid so that the cooked product has a good keeping quality.
4. The right consistency of fat, i.e. solidified for puff and flaky pastry, soft for cakes and biscuits help to get a good texture. To acquire good results in baking, because of fats and other ingredients, certain rules should be followed- "The richer the pastry, the hotter the oven, and the richer the cake, the cooler the oven."
RENDERING OF FAT
Animal fat is heated and melted and this renders fat from fatty tissues. Tallow, suet and lard are, usually rendered and used for cooking. The fat is cut into small pieces and placed in a pan and put in the oven or on slow fire, until the fat melts, and there are crisp brown pieces of tissues left. This should be strained through a fine cloth into a clean bowl.
CLARIFICATION OF FAT
Used fat should be clarified and then used for better results in cooking. Strain the used fat and then mix double the quantity of water in a pan and bring it to the boil. Strain again, cool and place it in a refrigerator. The fat will solidify and float on top. Lift the cake of fat, turn it upside down and scrape off the foreign particles that have collected. Heat the fat on slow fire,till the water evaporates and then strain and store it in a cool place.
RAISING OF LEAVENING AGENTS
Leavening is increasing the surface area of a dough or batter by creating within myriads of gas bubbles puffing up, thus increasing the volume and making it light.
The expansion of these gases during baking increases the volume of the product and gives a desirable porous structure. The aeration of flour products is affected by the following:
1. Biological (yeast) 2. Chemical (baking powder)
3. Mechanical (whisking. beating) 4. Lamination (folding. rolling)
5. Combination of the above.
YEAST
It is a living micro-organism and is a form of plant life. It requires food, moisture, warmth and air for its growth. The primary function of yeast is to change sugar into carbon dioxide gas, so that the dough, in which it is generated, is aerated. It also assists in mellowing and ripening the gluten of the dough, and it contains vitamin B complex. When yeast is dispersed in water at a suitable temperature and mixed to a smooth paste with flour and all the food necessary for fermentation are present, E.g. sugar, skimmed milk, the sugar acts as food and soluble proteins to form the structure and building material of the new cells. Activity starts within the yeast cell, yeast exudes a substance known as an enzyme which changes a solution of sugar (sucrose) and water into a simple sugar (dextrose) thus absorbed within the yeast cell and changed to carbon dioxide and alcohol, together with other by-products. Other enzymes in flour and yeast change some of the soluble starch to sugar, which in turn is assimilated by the yeast arid changed, so that aeration goes on from this continued production of gas.
When using yeast, these points should be remembered:
It remains dormant in cold.
It rises in warmth.
It is killed by heat (if temperature is over 1270 F).
It is fed by sugar, and in the dough it caramelizes on the outside, forming a brown crust.
It is fed by flour; the starch gelatinizes with the moisture inside the dough and cooks into a light spongy mixture which is digestible.
6. Strong or hard flour is the best to use in bread making.
If salt is added in the correct proportions, it gives a good flavour, controls fermentation and improves the colour of the finished goods.
Commercial yeast is of two main types compressed in cake form (also in a liquid form) and dry yeast in granular form. Compressed yeast is a moist mixture of yeast plants and starch. The yeast remains active and multiplies rapidly if added to the dough. It should be kept in the deep freezer, because it retains its activity for several weeks, or even months. Liquid yeasts and starters are sometimes used in household bread-making. They are mixtures of active yeasts from compressed form with yeast food, such as sugar and potato flour or dough. They have a short storage life.
DRY YEAST
It is a mixture of yeast with corn meal or starch pressed into cakes and dried. Such yeasts continue to live, but are in an inactive state. When furnished with food and moisture they begin to develop and multiply, but do so slowly. They can be stored for a long time and are inexpensive.
ACTIVATED DRY YEAST
It develops faster than dry yeast and is less perishable than compressed yeast. It is used in straight dough mixing. It should be stored at refrigerator temperature for a longer life.
CHEMICALS
Chemical aeration is brought about by the production of carbon dioxide from the action, in solution, of an alkali and an acid in the presence of heat. The acid and alkali in correct proportions (which is harmless to human digestion) is baking powder. With this method of aeration, the greater amount of gas should be generated after heat has been applied, i.e. when the goods are in the oven.
The carbon dioxide which is generated passes into the air cells already created and is held by the network of gluten in the dough. This generation of gas and the consequent expansion causes an increase in the volume, which is held by the coagulation of the gluten and other proteins that are present. The dough cooked
becomes light and digestible. Baking powder consists of two parts acid and one part alkali. This can be bought readymade or it can be made as per the following recipes:
Recipe I: Cream of tartar 60 Gms
Bicarbonate of soda 32 Gms
Corn flour (optional. increases the stability of the mixture.)
METHOD
Sieve together several times. It has to be kept in an airtight tin. The addition of one part rice flour or corn flour will help to keep dry.
Recipe II: Tartaric acid 30 Gms
Bicarbonate 30 Gms
Method: - Same as above.
The latter recipe is suitable, but once moistened it reacts rapidly, so that much of the gas is lost, if delayed in reaching the oven. Other acids which may be used, when combined with bicarbonate of soda will produce carbon dioxide such as vinegar and sour milk. When sodium bicarbonate is heated, it gives off part of its carbon dioxide, but leaves sodium carbonate as a residue. This compound is unpalatable and hence should always be neutralized with an acid which leaves a relatively tasteless and harmless salt. If no sodium bicarbonate is added, the cookies are pale in colour; when it is added, the intensity of colour increases with the quantity of soda. Cream of tartar used in angel cakes increases their activity and tends to make them white and fine grained.
MECHANICAL AERATION
It is incorporating air by whisking, beating and sieving. When sugar and eggs, fat and sugar, fat and flour or any combination of these are beaten or whisked together, or flour is sieved, it works as aeration. Whichever way the air is introduced into the mixing, be it by hand, whisk, spatula or by machine, it is still termed mechanical aeration. Air is incorporated into the mixing by one of the above means and is held there by the fat, eggs, or both; aeration is brought about by the expansion of the air in the hot oven, together with the water vapor pressure within the air bubbles. One of the best examples of mechanical aeration is the sponge cake, where a foam is produced from the eggs and sugar, the flour is then folded in the sponge and baked. The egg and flour proteins coagulate and the starch cooks thereby making the sponge set.
WATER VAPOUR
Lamination acts as a raising agent. In pastries- folding and rolling helps to give the lift. In Idlis, khaman, dhoklas, etc. steam formed by the heat, helps to puff up, as liquid and flour are present in equal quantities. As the popcorns have moisture inside the grains, when heated, they expand in volume. The fundamental objective when making puff pastry is to build up a structure of fat and dough consisting of many layers so that when subjected to heat in an oven, it will expand and lift evenly, to produce goods with short eating properties. In the oven, the pastry, which consists of thin layers of dough separated by films of fat, comes under the influence of heat, and the gluten in the dough layers is caused to expand and blister. The fat melts and the dough layers are insulated and the fat takes on a higher temperature, dough layers are cooked, the gluten coagulates and becomes almost rigid and the pastry does not collapse. It is the expansion and blistering of the gluten in the dough layers as a result of steam pressure from the water in the dough that is responsible for the lift.
COMBINATIONS
Danish pastries are a combination of aeration by yeast and by lamination. For this, rich yeast dough is made and butter is incorporated as for puff pastry. In this, the pastry expands in volume, because of the process of aeration, by lamination, and at the same time is aerated by the action of yeast.
THICKENING AND BINDING AGENTS
Thickening agents give body, consistency, and palatability, when used. They improve the nutritive value. Flavored liquids are thickened and converted into soups, sauces, gravies, curries, bavarois, mousses, puddings, etc.
Binding agents are used to form a mixture of ingredients into a cohesive mass.
The thickening agents are starch, agar, eggs, gelatin, coconut, tamarind, curd, poppy seeds, onion paste, coriander power, etc. Starch is the reserve carbohydrate of plants and is abundant in common foods: corn, rice, wheat, potatoes, arrowroot, and tapioca; rice has about 80% starch, wheat 70% potatoes about 19% starch,
Starch is classified into
Ø Cereal
Ø Starches,
Ø Root starches
Ø Instant starches.
Cereal starch is found in: Rice, wheat and maize. When cooked, corn, wheat, or rice, begins to gelatinize at about 71° (l600F) but requires about 85-96°C (l85-205°F) for maximum thickening. Cereal starches when cooked and cooled tend to gel, while most root starches do not, as they have more thickening power than root starches. Root starches are tapioca, potato and arrowroot which thicken at a lower temperature of 65-71°C (150160OF) than cereal starches. They thicken completely below boiling point. Instant starches are pre-cooked starches, also known as pre-gelatinized starches. Instant puddings, etc. in the market contain instant starches. Agar is a rigid transparent gel, and is used for salads, sweet dishes. It is seaweed, widely found in China. Eggs give a firm gel when baked, and thicken, but are soft when stirred. Gelatin (unflavored) is used for salads, cold sweets, cold soups. When set, it is transparent, firm and quivery. Coconut is used for curries, and gives the gravy a whitish colour, thickens and enhances the taste. Tamarind is used in a pulpy form and it gives a thickening to the consistency of the gravy and gives a brownish appearance and an acidic taste. Curd is used for thickening curries and it gives a whitish appearance, and a good flavour. Poppy seeds, onion paste, coriander powder give body to the curries, and slightly thicken the gravy and blend with the flavour of the curry.
FLAVOURINGS AND SEASONINGS
Spices and herbs give flavoring and seasoning to the dishes. To get effective results, not only should the food please the eye, but should also flatter or stimulate the palate. The success of cooking largely depends upon the help we obtain from flavoring and seasoning. The spice we use for this purpose should be used sparingly, as well as with skill. All palates may not crave for highly spiced food, yet majority of people demand that the food be moderately flavored with the right constituents. To use flavoring and seasoning rightly is a great accomplishment; the dish could be spoilt by being over seasoned. Seasoning should bring out the natural flavors of the main ingredients and blend with them. Seasonings as such have little or no nutritive value but are valuable for they give variety to the dishes and have medicinal value.
IMPORTANCE OF SPICES AND HERBS
HELP IN DIGESTION
From prehistoric times, spices have been used. Clove oil stimulates the flow of gastric juices; garlic, aniseed and asafetida are taken for better digestion, and to reduce the chances of hypertension.
USED FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES
For toothache, clove oil relieves pain. Turmeric and oil applied on swellings and hurts, cures, as it is believed to have antiseptic qualities, etc. Garlic and saunf help digestion, ginger added to tea helps to cure colds. Turmeric added to milk is given to a person who is in a state of shock.
ENHANCE FLAVOUR
Dishes would be insipid and bland if the spices were not added, because they give a good flavour and stimulate appetite. The flavorings added should not be overpowering, but there should not be a suspicion that they have been added. This mental search for the flavour makes the dish more interesting. Monosodium glutamate is a flavour enhancer in meat and fish dishes. Cinnamon, bay leaf, nutmeg, saffron, pepper, cloves, etc. also enhance flavour. Monosodium glutamate is salt like crystals known as MSG. It is marketed under various brand names and is produced by a special process from wheat, Soya and sugar beet. It enhances flavour in the cooking of savory dishes.
IMPROVE APPEARANCE
Some of the spices give colour to the food and improve the appearance of the dish. Turmeric, saffron, coriander leaves, poppy seeds, ratanjot and colour to the food, which makes the dish interesting.
IMPROVE PALATABILITY
Salt is one of the important seasonings that enhance the taste of the food. It also brings out the flavour. The other seasonings that improve the palatability are pepper, chilies, poppy seeds, coriander seeds and paprika, etc.
ACT AS PRESERVATIVES
Many food are preserved for a longer time with the help of spices. Salt is used extensively for preserving - brine solution. Other spices that have the preservative quality are-turmeric, cloves, mustard, ginger, garlic, asafetida. Pickling is one of the forms of preserving. Spices that have flavorings and seasonings are: Garlic, ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, cumin seeds, mustard seeds, poppy seeds, nutmeg, asafoetida, coriander powder, mace, pepper, fenugreek, chillies, saffron, aniseeds, turmeric, paprika, caraway seeds, allspice, sesame.
Various herbs are parsley, celery, coriander leaves, thyme, tarragon, rosemary, mint, marjoram, sage, bay leaf, basil, chervil, caripatta etc.
Spices and herbs are available in different forms:
Ø Fresh.
Ø Dehydrated
Ø Powdered,
Ø Liquids Essences (concentrated) of spices. E.g. clove, Cinnamon etc.
Many combinations of spices in a powdered form are marketed today. E.g. chana masala, rasam powder, sambar masala for onions, garam masala, jal zeera masala, meat masala etc. This process retains original flavour and improves keeping quality and makes transportation economical and easy. Spices are also available in liquid form.
FISH &; SHELL FISH
Most fishes are edible and the world of fish represent as enormous source of good food. The most nourishing fishes come from the river: the eels, rohu etc. All fishes consists of nearly 75% of water and also the albuminoids consistency varies little from fish to fish ( about 18%). The fat content variation is very high. The fish has the advantage in the content of phosphorated compounds. Especially the lean fishes are much more easily digestible and hence represent as an excellent food for the sedentary workers and sick.
In general terms for recognition purpose, fish can be divided into two groups or types; the flat fishes which are to be found near the bottom of the sea; and the Round fishes which are commonly found swimming near the surface. There are also, of course, Shellfish (crustaceans and molluscs). All of these are further sub-divided, first into Sea or Fresh water fish, white fish, oily fish, etc.; and then into distinct families or groups.
Classification of Fish
FISH
1.Fin fish
2. Shell fish
White fish Oily fish Molluscs Crustaceans
Fin fish
They are vertebrates and have skin and scales which cover the body. They move with the help of fins. They are subdivided into:
White fish
White fish are mainly flat fish, and contain oil only in the liver. Most of these are deep sea fish. Common local examples are pomfret, sole etc.
Atlantic Halibut Winter Flounder
Butterfish
Oily fish
Oily fish are mainly round fish and contain fat all over the body. The amount of fat varies from 1.5% to 20% in different varieties. These fish are often pigmented and tend to be surface fish. Example: mackerels, sardines etc.
Shell fish
As the name denotes have a shell covering the body. They are invertebrates. They are subdivided into:
Molluscs:
Bivalves
(e.g. oysters, scallops, mussels, clams and cockles) which have two distinctly separate shells joined by a hinge-like membrane. The movements of the shell are controlled by a strong muscle. When the muscle relaxes, the two halves of the shell fall open. The shell also open when the organism dies, thus exposing the contents of the shell to contamination from outside, resulting in quick putrefaction.
Univalves:
(e.g. whelks and winkles) These are recognized by the characteristic spiral formation of their shells, which unlike those of bivalves are not divided into halves.
The shells of molluscs increase at the rate of one ring per year to allow for the growth of the organism. The age of the molluscs can thus be roughly estimated by the number of rings on the shell.
Crustaceans
Crustaceans have a segmented, crust-like shell (e.g. lobsters, crabs, prawns, shrimps). The shells of crustaceans do not grow with the fish, unlike those of the molluscs, but are shed every year, with a new one forming to suit their new size.
POINTS OF SELECTION OF FISH
Absolute freshness is essential if the best is to be obtained from any fish dish, both in flavour and nourishment. Stale fish are not only unappetizing but can also be the cause of digestive disorders or even poisoning. In these days of quick-freeze, of course, the bulk of the fish reaches the markets frozen and, if the fish was frozen whilst fresh and it is used immediately after defrosting, it will to all intents and purposes be equal to fresh fish, although some of the flavour will have been lost in refrigeration. The following are some tests which can be applied to determine the freshness or otherwise of fish:
1. The eyes should be bright and ‘full’, not sunken;
2. The gills should be bright pinkish red in colour;
3. The flesh must be firm and springy, or elastic;
4. Scales, if any, should be plentiful, firm and should not come off when fish is handled;
5. The fish should have a pleasant, salty smell.
Sure signs and indications of staleness
1. an unpleasant ammoniac odour which increases with its staleness,
2. limp flesh retaining the imprint of one’s fingers,
3. Sunken eyes,
4. Gills dull and discolored.
The quality is determined by the condition of the skin, which should be shining and of good colour. The flesh of white fish should be really white, not yellowish. The fish should feel heavy in relation of size, the flesh plump and springy.
CLEANING OF FISH
De-scaling And Cleaning
1. Soaking the fish in cold water for a few minutes before descaling, helps in removing scales more easily.
2. The blunt side of the knife should be used.
3. The head of the fish is held with the left hand and holding the knife vertical, scraping is done starting from the tail, working towards the head, the scales are scraped off. The fish is then washed to remove any loose scales.
4. Cut off the fins, remove the head. The entrails should be removed by cutting the length of the fish from the vent end to the head on the belly side.
Filleting
Cut the flesh along the line of the backbone and raise the fillet from the middle of the back, to the sides, first working towards the head, then the tall.
Skinning
Hold the tail end of the fish in the left hand, first sprinkling salt on the fingers for a good grip. Skin the flesh (skin side down) from tail to head, with quick short sawing strokes of a sharp knife. Point the knife blade towards the skin so that no flesh is wasted.
BASIC CUTS
La Darne A slice or steak of round fish on the bone. E.g. Darne de Saumon, Darne
De cabillaud.
Le Troncon A slice or steak of flat fish on the bone. E.g. Troncon de Turbot, Troncon
De barbue.
Le Filet A fillet of fish, usually from a small fish without bones. E.g. Filet de sole,
Filet de plie.
Le Supreme Applied to large fillets of fish, cut into portion on the slant e.g. Supreme
de Fletan, Supreme de Aigrefin.
Le Delice Applied to neatly folded fillets of fish e.g. Delice de Sole, Delice de
Merlan.
Le Goujon Applied to fillet of fish cut into strips approx. 6 cm. x ½ cm. (3 in x ¼
in) usually floured, egg-washed and bread crumbed e.g. Goujon de Plie,
Goujon de Sole.
La Paupiette This term is applied to fillets of smaller fish, usually sole which are
stuffed with farce, fish or vegetables, or mixture of both, neatly rolled into a barrel shape, tied or pinned
HERBS AND SPICES
HERBS
There are of 30 well known types of herbs approximately 12 are generally used. Herbs may be used fresh but usually dried to ensure continues supply throughout the year. The leaves contain volatile oils which impart flavour and smell. Herbs have no food value but are important from nutritive point of view in adding digestion as they stimulate flow of gastric juices.
BASIL (TULISI)
Aromatic herb originating in India name is derived from Greek meaning basilikos i.e. royal .The leaves have a strong flavor of jasmine and lemon. Leaves are used in raw or cooked particularly tomato dishes as also salads, stuffing’s.
BAYLEAF (TEJ PATTA)
Bay leaves are leaves of the bay laurel or sweet bay trees or shrubs. They may be fresh or dried and are used for flavoring soups, sauces, staves fish etc. they form an importan part of the Bouquet-garni.
CHERVIL
An aromatic plant originating from central Asia but now common throughout Europe, It is best when used in fresh form. It aroma is very volatile and care must be taken to avoid excessive cooking or heating. It is used complement to sauces. In addition to common chervil there in curl chervil
CELERY
A vegetable grown for its roots, stems, leaves and seeds. Several varieties of cultivated celery are grown for their while fleshy stalks. It yields 20cals per 100g. . The stalks are eaten raw with salt, in mixed salads. The leaves fresher dried can serve as garnish for salads, soups sauces. Celery salt in extracted from dried celeriac roots a used as a condiment for tom juice.
CHIVE (PIC AVAILABLE)
An alliaceous plant related to spring onion, that produces small elongated bulbs and clumps of tubular green leaves. The leaves of the plant are used either fresh or dried for flavouring soups and salads. It has delicate onion flavour. E.g. Vichyssoise - cold leek and potato flavored soup gar and chives.
DILL (SHEPU)
Dill leaves are used as a culinary herb and seeds are used in cooking in North Africa the USSR and Scandinavia. Dill in also used to make an aromatic vinegar and flavouring for various pickles.
FENNEL (SAUNF)
An aromatic umbelliferous plant of Mediterranean region. It grows to a height of 1.2—1.5 m. The feathery leaves and seeds have a slight aniseed flavour. The leaves are also used or a garnish the bulb can be used raw in salads or it can be cooked.
MARJORAM
A herb of which the there are various types the most popular being sweet marjoram and wild marjoram is more commonly known as oregano . Sweet marjoram is one of the most favoured herbs in cookery; it has a strong aromatic scent but a fairly delicate flavour. To avoid losing flavor it is best added at the end of the cooking period. Oregano has a much more pungent flavour than marjoram and is popular in Greece and Italian cookery. When dried, both sweet and wild marjoram become much stronger in flaovur and should be used sparingly.
MINT
There are many varieties of mint. There are over 25 varieties of mint. Same of them are as follows:
1) Water mint
2) Horse mint
3) Cologne mint
4) Japanese mint
5) Pepper mint
6) Garden mint is the most common used leaves are used to flavour sauces,
Salads and to season roast lamb. Mint cab be used either fresh / dried min will retain its flavour for 02 years if stored in airtight containers.
ROSEMARY
An aromatic shrub native to Mediterranean whose evergreen leaves are used either fresh / dried as they have a very pungent taste, they are need for flavouring . Name comes form Latin word Rosmmarinus . Combines well with veal, also used in some tomato soacues. In addition a sprig of rosemary gives flavour to milk used for desert.
TARRAGON
This plant has a bright green attractive leaf. It is best used fresh, particularly when decorating chaud froid dishes. Tarragon has a pleasant flavour and is used in sauces; one well known e.g. is sauce Béarnaise.
SAGE
Sage is strong bitter, pungent herb which aids in digestion of rich fatty meats and is therefore used for shiffing s. The different varieties of sage are 1) Garden sage 2) Provengale sage. 3) Catalonian Sage 4) Clary sage.
SPICES
Spices are natural products obtained from fruits, seeds, roots, flowers or the bark of a number of different trees or shrubs. They contain oils which aid digestion by stimulating the gastric juices. As spices are concentrated in flavour, they should be used sparingly; otherwise they can make the food unpalatable. Most spices are grown in India, Africa, W. Indies and Far East.
ALLSPICE
This is the berry of ‘Eugenia Pimenta’ a small tree grown in the West Indies .The berries are gathered when green and unripe and dried in the sun. These berries combine flavour of cloves, nutmeg and cinnamon Hence it is called allspice. It is also known as ‘Jamaica Pepper’.
CLOVES (LAVANG)
The sun dried flower bud of the clove tree used since ancient times as a spice. Brown and hard, loves are abront ½ in long with a head 1/6 in diameter. The word is taken from the French word ‘Clou’ meaning nail which describes its shape.
Cloves has medicinal properties also .The oil of cloves is used in dentistry to soothe headaches and its antiseptic properties are well known cloves are used in both Indian and western dishes both sweet and savory e.g. pulaows , onions studded with cloves is used in preparation of Béchamel sauce , braised and boiled meat dishes , fruit salads etc.
NUTMEG AND MACE (JAIPHAL)
These are the only known cases of two different spices from the same fruit. What we call nutmeg is the seed of a fruit which resembles an apricot. This set is protected by a thin outer covering which is dried to obtain mace. Although the aroma is similar for N&M, separate used exist for both. When buying nutmegs choose those which are round, compact of oily appearance and heavy for thin size.
MUSTARD (RYE)
An herbaceous plant originating from the Mediterranean region. Mustard seeds are the seeds the plant and mustard powder is the powder of the seeds. There are 3 varieties of mustard.
1) Black Mustard
2) Brown Mustard
3) White Mustard
When mustard is used a a spice, it is used whole e.g. Seeds. When seeds are powdered it becomes a condiment. The pungency of mustard is brought water. In India it is used whole for tempering dishes and in pickles. It is also an important ingredient in certain masalas e.g. indaloo. Mustard when used as a condiment can be flavoured in different ways e.g. with tarragon, garlic, fine herbs, paprika etc. The best known and most widely used mustard is DIJON MUSTRD is produced in the dijon region of France .
CINNAMON (DALCHINI)
A spice obtained from the bark of several topical trees. The bark is removed dried and rolled up to make up a tube fawn or dark brown in colour . Popular varieties of cinnamon are from and Shrilanks and chine. The best cinnamon should be as thin as paper. It has a fragrant odour and its taste is pleasant and aromatic in Frace, it is chiefly used to flavor desserts . In Indian and Far East uses are much more numerous.
CARDAMOM (ELAICHI)
This is a fruit of a need like plant grown chiefly along the malabar coast of india . The fruit is a small pod and seeds within pro have a strong sweetish flavour. Cardamom finds a variety of uses in Indian cookery e.g. In pulaos, rich gravies. Masalas powdered car cardamom is use din cakes, puddings etc.
PEPPER
A condiment derived from the pepper plant (Piper nigrum) a climbing vine native to India, jara.The pepper is the fruit of the plant. Peppercorns harvested at various stages of maturity provide the full.
Types of Pepper
Black
Very strong and pungent
Green
Unripe peppercorns sold dried or pickled less pungent and more fruity
White
Ripe with enter husk removed by rubbing in salt water
Cayenne
Dried fruits of capsicum plant grown in cayenne Islands
Pepper is sold either whole (i.e. pepper corns) or ground. Ground Pepper quickly loses its flavour and aroma.
PEPPER IN COOKING
Whole pepper corns are used in court- bouillons, marinades, pates etc. Crushed pepper is used for grilled meats, forcemeats hashes etc.
CORIANDER (DHANIA)
The plant is called ‘corianderum satium’ and is related to the parsley family. The seeds of the plant are used as a spice. Coriander leaves are commonly known as drab parsley or chinese parsley in France and are used especially for garnishing. it can also be used in preparation of certain meat dishes e.g. Nilgiri khorma.
TURMERIC (HALDI)
The aromatic root of a plant growing in India and West Indies sold in root form and as powder. Turmeric is member of ginger family fruit has a different flavor. It is used extensively in Indian cookery for imparting colour and flavour to curries.
GINGER (ADRAK)
This is the tuberous root of plant and is one of the few species that grow underground.The most common use of ginger is to make Masalas, drinks e.g. Singer ter and in confectionery such as ginerbiscuitts , cookies etc. When selecting singer points to note are it should be free dirt, skin should be smooth and of light brown colour and should give off the flavoner when burnished slightly
CUMIN SEEDS (JEERA SEEDS)
This is a herbs of the caraway type producing seeds of a pleasant small and flavour which are very popular. The seeds come form the fruit of the cumin plant. Added to curry powder or fried whole for seasoning or tempering
KITCHEN ORGANIZATION AND LAYOUT
KITCHEN ORGANISATION
The organization of kitchens will vary, mainly due to the size and the type of the establishment. Obviously, where a kitchen has hundred Chefs preparing for banquets for up to 1000 people and a lunch and dinner service for 300-400 customers with a la carte menu, the organization will be quite different from a small restaurant doing thirty table d'hote lunches or a hospital diet kitchen preparing diets.
Even when there are two kitchens of a similar nature, the internal organization may vary, as each Chef de Cuisine will have his own way of running his kitchen. It has been found most satisfactory in organizing the work of a kitchen to divide it into "Parties' or "Corners".
The parties system was perfected by Escoffier and it was the result of studying about the food production and the recipes allocating tasks to different specialists so as to help produce the more complex dishes regularly, efficiently and swiftly. The kitchen was divided into sections, each one of which was responsible for a particular contribution to the entire food production system.
In the kind of kitchen Escoffier organized, the parties system reached the height
of complexity because the end-products had to be of the highest finish and yet be completed to order in rapid sequence for a substantial number of customers. A set pattern was made.
Basically the principles of kitchen organization represent a standard practice though there are no set rules for deciding how many sections and how many staff a particular kitchen requires. Each catering establishment has different factors to be taken into consideration such as extent of menu, number of persons to be served and management policy.
A large kitchen, which caters for a large number, will have more sections than a smaller kitchen catering for lesser numbers. The number of staff in a section is determined by the amount of work to be done and importance of the contribution of the section to the menus and the skill of work. The base of different kitchen organizations is taken from the Traditional Kitchen Organization that was pioneered by Auguste Escoffier, the instigator of the partie or corner system. He had many sections such as grill, roast, vegetable, fish, sauce, soup, larder, patisseur etc. As everything was done manually it was necessary but now the sections have become fewer, because of labour-saving machines, convenience foods and combined catering equipment (microwave cum convection ovens, etc.), and the changing of public taste, which seeks simpler menus and meals.
Latest trends are that the kitchen organizations vary with almost every establishment. In former times there were specialized large staffs called brigades. The various sections were being clubbed together to suit the establishments.
Many kitchens use fresh food, ready to cook and sometimes ready to serve. This speeds the preparation and cooking times. The kitchens have become smaller and cook more versatile. New establishments employ less cooks.
KITCHEN STAFF
The team of cooks and their assistants under the partie system is commonly called the KITCHEN BRIGADE.
Specialists head the parties and with their assistants help produce complex dishes with great speed and efficiency. All the heads of the parties come under the control of the Chef de Cuisine (Head) aided by one or more sous chefs. In small establishments, head of the larder or sauce section acts as Sous Chef. The organization of various kitchens under partie system is as illustrated on page 248.
DUTIES OF KITCHEN STAFF
CHEF DE CUISINE
The Chef carries the full responsibilities for his kitchen. He must be both cook and administrator, i.e. as well as being able to cook, an authority on culinary matters, he needs to be capable of quick service and maintaining discipline. He must have a strict sense of economy and efficiency. He should be fully acquainted with the prices, market trends and commodities in season and customer requirements. His principal function is to plan, organize and supervise the work of the kitchen.
He prepares a pre-determined percentage of profit and work in accordance with the policy of the establishment.
He is responsible for staffing, selection and dismissal in conjunction with the Personnel Department. If need be, he should train the trainee cooks.
Modern experts favour relieving the Chef from the details of purchasing so that he can concentrate on more important aspects of managing his kitchen and attending to the actual food production side. Purchasing is becoming specialized and is vital to the economic structure of the undertaking. It is done in consultation and co-operation with the Chef.
The Chef is responsible for the staffing of the kitchen and for the organization of duty rosters. The Chef concerns himself with the quality of food and its presentation. He is the departmental head and is responsible to the management.
SOUS CHEF
The assistant head chef understudies the Head Chef in all his duties. It is the Sous chef who calls up the order from the kitchen and supervises the service. He is mainly responsible for the efficient day-to-day functioning of the kitchen.
The Sous chef supervises the practical kitchen activities. When the chef is busy and he can make ad hoc staff changes during the working day to reliever pressure.
In large establishments there are a number of Sous chefs, especially when there are separate kitchens like grillroom, restaurant, and banquet service.
CHEF DE PARTIE
For the different sections in the kitchen, there is a “Chef de Partie” i.e. roast cook, larder cook, etc. Each chef de party is assisted according to the production load, by one or more commis cooks; first, second, third commis and also trainees. It is sometimes the practice, where long operating hours apply, for the working period, to be split up between the chef de partie and his first commis, though the chef de partie is entirely responsible for his partie throughout the working period. Alternatively there may be two separate and complete “brigades” rotating upon an a.m. and a p.m. basis. This system is very much flavoured, since it does away with split duties.
The entire Chef de Parties may be regarded as supervisors or foremen of their sections as well as skilled craftsmen.
CHEF SAUCIER (SAUCE COOK)
The sauce cook is usually the “star” party because it is most complex. The Chef Saucier will be Sous Chef in the making and will eventually rise to Chef de Cuisine. It is here that all the sauces, meat; poultry entrees are prepared together with the necessary garnishes. He prepares his own mise-en-place, for many items he will receive, steaks prepared from larder, etc. The sauces prepared must be distinctive but not overpowering.
CHEF ROTTISEUR (ROAST COOK)
He is responsible for the production of all roasts and grills of meat, poultry and game, grilled and deep-fried fish, deep fried vegetables, potatoes and savouries. He prepares sauces, accompaniments and garnishes for roasts and grills. In large establishments grilled items are the responsibility of the grillardin or grill cook. It is usual for the grill cook to work under the supervision of the roast.
CHEF POISSONNIER (FISH COOK)
The fish cook prepares all the fish entrees and the roast cook deals with all roasts and deep-fired foods. The fish prepared comes from the larder and the chef does the cooking, garnishing, saucing and the dishing of fish.
The repertoire of fish dishes and their accompanying sauces is a great experience, and training and judgment are required from this Chef.
CHEF POTAGER (SOUP COOK)
The soup cook prepares all types of soups, and is responsible for the garnishes accompanying the soups. The Chef sometimes begins work early, the work of the Potager is important as soup gives an impression of the meal to follow.
CHEF GARDE MANAGER (LARDER COOK)
The larder cook is the most spectacular and the busiest, because the work is never ending. As well as feeding the main kitchen with prepared foods for processing it has to keep the cold buffet supplied. It is a cold section and is the storehouse of the kitchen where all perishable foods are kept.
He has a wide range of work to do, as the larder have various subsections such as hors d’oeuvre, and a salad section, butchery section. The cold buffet work, sandwiches, canapés are his responsibility also.
CHEF ENTREMETTIER (VEGETABLE COOK)
The vegetable cook is responsible for the production of vegetables and potatoes.
CHEF PATISSIER (PASTRY COOK)
The pastry cook has different status but certainly not less than the sauce cook and the larder cook. His work is specialized and he prepares hot and cold pudding, cakes, pastries, break etc. He is also responsible for special display work and the supply to the main kitchen of items of pastry.
CHEF DE BANQUET (BANQUET COOK)
In many of the large hotels with extensive banquet commitments, the brigade will carry a banquet chef and one or two commis.
The banquet chef is responsible for organizing the service, coordinating with the chefs de parties, the time and service, numbers for the arrival of various dishes to the service area. He will further arrange, to what point the dishes will be finished and make the necessary arrangements to carry out completion at the service point.
Sometimes this will mean his having to move his service staff from one service point to another, i.e. there may be an established banquet service point in the larder, another in the pastry section, apart from the main service area in the kitchen allocated for this purpose.
The banquet chef will co-ordinate with the banqueting manager regarding times, service numbers, special dishes required and special instructions to the waiters concerned.
CHEF TOURANT (RELIEF COOK)
He is relief chef de party. He takes over a section when its chef goes on leave or has and off day. Chef is usually a senior, capable commis as he has knowledge of the various sections.
CHEF DE PETIT DE JEUNER (BREAKFAST COOK)
He commences his duty very early. He does not rank as a chef de partie but nevertheless needs to be of good skill, within limited field. He is responsible for the complete breakfast service. Afterwards he has to complete his mis-en-place for the following morning. Sometimes he assists the soup or vegetable cook.
CHEF COMMUNAR (STAFF COOK)
In small establishment different chefs de parties prepare the staff food.
In large establishments a separate section or a separate kitchen prepares the meals. Staff ordinarily prepares meals for lower or supervisory staff. All the executives have their meals in restaurants. Wholesome food and inexpensive meals are prepared.
KITCHEN PORTERS / COMMIS
The head porter controls the issue and collection of laundry to the kitchen personnel that is supplied by the establishment.
Although a lot of duties of the kitchen porter require little skill, by correct good training, they become most valuable members of the kitchen brigade.
SAUCE COOK ----Commis I,II,III---Porters------ Apperentices
( Le Chef Saucier)
ROAST COOK
(Le Rotisseur)
E
X FISH COOK
E ( Le poissonneir)
C S
U E GRILL COOK
T C (Le Grillardin)
I O
V N VEGETABLE COOK
E D ( L’entremettier)
SOUP COOK
C C (Le Potager)
H H COLD WORK COOK
E E (Le chef de froid)
F F
LARDER COOK HORS D’OEUVRE COOK
( Le chef de garde (Le Hord’oeuvrier)
manger)
BUTCHER
(Le Boucher)
PASTRY COOK BAKER ICECREAM
(Le Patisseaur) (Le Boulangere) (Le Glacier)
INDIAN SECTION COOK
HOT SECTION(Curries,Rice,Vegetablesetc.)
TANDOORI
HALWAI ( INDIAN SWEET COOK)
RELIEF COOK ASSISTANT RELIEF COOK
(Le chef de tourant) (Le commis tourant)
BREAKFAST COOK
(Le chef de petit dejeuner)
STAFF COOK
(Le communar)
BANQUET COOK
( Chef de banquet)
SECTIONS OF KITCHEN
LARDER
The word larder has in professional kitchens a much wider significance. The larder is not simply a place where food is stored but a place where the raw materials for cooking are prepared and dressed. In large establishments, the work is further broken into sections.
Functions of Larder Department
The larder is a room set aside for the storage of perishable foods, both raw and cooked, where food as meat, fish, poultry and game are prepared and made ready for cooking. In this department too, all cold 'items found on the menu, such as hors d'oeuvres, cold dish or meat dishes, cold salads, etc. are prepared and dressed. For these function to be effective, it is essential that:
1. The room should be separate from the kitchen situated in a cool place. At the same time, it must be close to the kitchen to avoid undue running about between the two departments which are closely interrelated.
2. It should be suitably lighted, well-ventilated and sufficiently open to allow the staff to perform their duties in a clean and efficient manner.
3. It must be equipped with the necessary fittings, plant, machinery and tools in accordance with the volume, and or quality of the trade of the catering establishment in which it is situated.
Breakdown of Work
Work is broken down into various fields such as salads, poultry, ; cold buffet, hors d'oeuvres, mousses, cold cuts, sandwiches, etc. . The butcher receives directions from the larder chef according to the commitments of the business. The butchery prepares various Joints in advance according to the menu requirements. Each day certain quantities of meat are trimmed to the first stage, (removal of excess fat, skin and other inedible parts). The butcher carries out further preparations to certain meat items, i.e. boning and trimming to bring it to the stage for final cutting and trimming. Each day a pre-arranged amount of meat is cut and trimmed to the final stages against the menu requirements. Usually in catering establishments with an extensive banqueting service, it will mean that the butcher will have a considerable amount of preparations in the stages mentioned above. By this method the section at all times is able to meet the requirement of the kitchen. In the larger kitchens, the larder section includes fishmonger, who will trim and prepare the dish ready for service and delivery. The chicken is dressed, trussed or cut according to requirements of the menu. Quenelle mixtures are also prepared here. Charcutiery (port section) pork products and sausages are prepared. Rendering of dripping is also done here. All cold buffets, including afternoon receptions are prepared in the larder. Chef de Froid controls the cold buffet section. An important part of the larder duties is the rapId supply of various prepared foods to the kitchen at all times especially during service periods. Salads are prepared and assembled in this section. Hors d'oeuvres are also made and trolley is replenished by the hors d’Oeuvre. Decorative cut vegetables are prepared and they are used for decorating ravieres.
LARDER CONTROL
If this department is to be run efficiently and economically, it is essential that chef larder manager should exercise the strictest possible control over the foodstuff received and stored in the department. This involves:
1. Checking the quality and quantity of all goods delivered to the larder.
2. Ensuring that all foodstuffs are stored at the required temperature and they can be easily checked.
3. That the food is protected from contamination by vermin.
4. That portion control is rigidly carried out, e.g. given weight of meat, or fish or vegetables, etc. should always produce the required number of portions of steaks, fish fillets, salads or hors d'oeuvres.
5. Those stocks of food are regularly turned over.
6. That food is not overstocked.
7. That daily stock sheet kept by each should be submitted to the chief larder manager at the end of the day to enable him to write out his orders for the following day.
8. Obviously every effort must be made to maintain highest possible standard of hygiene, to prevent any deterioration in the food under his control. Every precaution should be taken to discourage pilferage.
The Larder Chef, at a set time each day, notifies the Chef, of stocks, of cooked or raw materials remaining.
SAUCE SECTION
The sauce section is responsible for providing all meat, poultry. game and offal dishes with the exception of those that are plain roasted or grilled. All the meat dishes are cooked and garnished. The partie will also provide all basic and finished sauces served hot, that are normally required by the various parties in the kitchen. Normally, one first commences early duty to cover the preparations and cooking of dishes as "Plat de Jour" as these often require a cooking time of 3-4 hours. Braising, boiling, peeling is also done in this section. Similar to the fish partie an extensive part of the dishes are cooked and a variety of cooked garnishes are also prepared. Miseen-place for, banquets is also done here. The Chef Saucier does important work as he assembles dishes which have an impact on the customers.
ROAST SECTION
The roast section is responsible for providing all roast dishes of meat, poultry and game. It is responsible for all grilled dishes of meat, chicken, offal and fish, and this duty is often delegated to the grill cook. The section is also responsible for the preparation of a number of dishes and the deep frying of the food items. It also prepares and finishes any savories that are required.
FISH SECTION
This section is responsible for the provision of all fish dishes with the exception of those that are plain grilled or deep fried. The cleaning, descaIing, filleting, crumbling is done by the fishmonger in larder. Generally as a larger selection of fish are offered, an extensive mise-en-place is required. At each service period, the following basic sauces are made ready for service: béchamel, white wine sauce, fish velouté, hollandaise and melted butter. Further, a number of garnishes are prepared in advance to a part cooked stage, By this arrangement, a variety of fish dishes particularly the poached and meuniere types can be done. Grilling is done by the grill cook or commis.
VEGETABLE SECTION
An entrement course in France was the responsibility of the entrement of vegetables, who skillfully prepared and cooked vegetables, which could be served as a separate course. An entrement was originally something sent to the table between the courses in France. During the period before service, each day various quantities of vegetables are prepared, cooked, refreshed and placed into refrigerator. Peeling, cleaning and trimming are done by semi-skilled workers. Limited quantities of certain potato dishes are cooked and finished to varying degrees, kept ready when service begins. Vegetable garnishes are prepared here and given to other sections. The cooking of eggs forms an important part of the work in this section. Particularly, omelettes of various types, e.g. plain, garnished, stuffed and flat round omelettes. Italian pastas but not noodles are also prepared in this section. Items like spaghetti, macaroni and rice may be sent to other sections for garnishes. The mise-en-place is carried out according to menu requirements. By this method, the vegetable cook and senior commis are able to cope with the finishing and serving of a vast amount of different dishes. Management of cooking vegetables well for large numbers calls for particular knowledge, skill and judgment and should never be entrusted to an unskilled and disinterested cook.
SOUP SECTION
It is the responsibility of this section to prepare soups such as consommés, creams, velouté, purees, broths, bisques and many special international soups. All basic stocks are also prepared here. The cold soups are prepared and passed to the larder for service. The garnishes come from the larder and vegetable section.
INDIAN SECTION
This section is responsible for the preparation, of all Indian dishes. The work is subdivided into subsections such as: Indian (bread and rice, pulaos, biryanis, chappaties, puries, bhaturas, etc.), vegetables, (bhajees, curries), meat, (including eggs and fish), tandoor (seekh kababs, tandoor chicken, boti kababs), Indian sweets jalebis, rasgullas, rabri, etc.) Each day a variety of dishes are prepared according to menu requirements.
PASTRY SECTION
The work of this section is normally separated from the main kitchen and is self-contained in the matter of cold storage. The function of this section is to prepare hot and cold sweets, for lunches, dinners and pastries for tea-time and other occasions. It also prepares pastes like short and puff pastry, frying batters for making noodles for supply to other corners of the kitchen. Sorbets and water-ice like items are made in pastry section. The service of ices and those sweets which are based upon ice-cream are prepared and assembled in Patisserie. They also include the sweet omelettes au surprise and soufflé surprise, Melbas, etc. The art of pastry includes work like colored sugars to make flower baskets and similar decorative centre pieces, work with fondant and icing sugar, gum pastes, fashioning of praline into decorative objects. Where hotels operate a bakery section, the responsibility is carried out by the master baker. Normally one commis will commence early duty each day to provide the mise-en-place required by the various sections. The section needs workers with skill, imagination and experience.
PASTRY MISE-EN-PLACE
In common with the Larder and Kitchen Departments, the successful running of the pastry department depends on adequate mise-en-place. Mise-en-place must not be confused with stores, even though stores are, in fact, a form of mise-en-place in that they are ordered in advance and are, in fact, preparation department. To the production department, mise-en-place is the only method of preparing ahead. as the preparation of mincemeat and Christmas puddings is done in this manner, it is usual to make the pudding early in November. Briefly the following is the mise-en-place for kitchen and larder; it is only mentioned to prove the importance of mise-en-place.
Kitchen - stocks, sauces, béchamel, vegetables.
Larder - Joints of meat, poultry, fish, meat for pies, puddings, etc. In common with the Larder, the pastry is also a supplying department and the mise-en-place for these other departments must be taken into account. Tartlet cases, bouche'es, Nouilles, pie and pudding covering etc. The following is a list of the most essential pastry preparations:
Pastes -short, sweet, puff (left at four turns), brioche, pâté a' crepe
Creams -Butter-cream, frangipane, crème patisseur, creamed rice
The above should always be available, and kept in the refrigerator but not a freezing point; 40° is cold enough. Pastes become very difficult to manipulate if they are frozen. The butter-cream is used for various gateaux, creamed rice for Condes, baked rice pudding (a'la carte). The pancake batter is also for a' la carte service. Crèmes, Patisseur has many uses, being a quick source of sweet soufflés and weakened down for trifles, sauces, etc. It is an advantage to have a supply of crème caramels for they are in constant demand as a' la carte-sweets. Coryotes of fruit are used in the main meals and the mise-en place must include figs and prunes as they are in constant demand at breakfast. Naturally, tinned fruit should be used only when fruits are out of season. Genoise, Swiss Rolls, finger biscuits, meringues, and vacherins are essential mise-en-place for the easy preparation for gateaux, trifles, meringue, Chantilly or glace Charlotte Russe, etc. Pastries can either be partly prepared in the form of frangipane tartIets, barquettes, etc. or the tartlet cases lined with paste and finished the following day, in the same method as such things as volau-vent, bouche, fleurons, etc. Dry petit fours in the form of macaroons, langues des chats, etc. as also pastilles de menthe, fudge, coconut kisses are easily stored, and leaving only the fondant and sugar dipped varieties to be completed on the day of use. If ice creams in their many forms are made on the premises, they should be made in advance: this includes bombes, biscuits, biscuit glace, and soufflés.
LAYOUT OF KITCHEN
PLACEMENT AND FLOW OF WORK
FUELS
Any source of heat energy is termed as fuel. The term fuel includes all combustible substances obtained in bulk. Fuel is a substance which produces a large amount of heat when burnt with oxygen of the atmospheric air. Fuels are primarily used for heating purpose.
TYPES OF FUEL
Fuels are of following types
Solid Fuel
Coal, Peat, Lignite, Wood, Coke, Anthracite, Bituminous
Liquid Fuel
Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene, Coal tar, Molasses, Sprit, Shale oil
Gaseous Fuel
Methane, Coal gas, Producer gas, Compressed blast furnace gas,
Town gas, Water gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas.
Electricity
Electricity used in producing heat. E.g. Heating element
QUALITIES OF GOOD FUEL
The good fuel should have following qualities:
Should have low ignition point.
Should has high calorific value
Should produce minimum quantity of smoke
Should be easy to store and transport
Should have moderate rate of combustion
Should have low content of volatile material
Should not produce poisonous products on combustion
Should be available readily and plentiful
SOLID FUEL
Advantages of solid fuel
1. They are east to transport
2. They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion
3. Their cost of production is low
4. They posses moderate ignition temperature
5.
Disadvantages of solid fuel
1. Their ash contents are high
2. Combustion efficiency is low
3. They have low calorific value
4. Large space is required for their storage
5. Their combustion operation can not be controlled
LIQUID FUEL
Advantages of Liquid fuel
Storage space required is minimum
They have high calorific value
Fuels do not deteriorate during storage
Their flames can be controlled
They have low ignition temperature
Disadvantages of Liquid fuel
Heat produced is costly
Requires costly and special storage tank
They give bad odour
Burners chocking is possible
GASEOUS FUEL
Advantages of Gaseous fuel
They have higher calorific value
They can be lighted at moments notice
Conveyed easily through pipe lines
Burns without ash and smoke
Cleanliness in use
Disadvantages of Gaseous fuel
Very large storage tank is needed
They are highly inflammable
The risk of explosion is associated with gaseous fuels
SAUCES
Sauce is a liquid, having smooth and glossy appearance, definite in taste and light in texture; thickening is done in moderation.
USES OF SAUCES
1. To enhance the flavour of the food
2. To give colour to food
3. Help in digestion
4. Moisten dry food
5. Enhance nutritional value of food
6. Lend a name to dish e.g. fish Portuguese
7. Give a balanced taste
THICKENING AGENTS FOR SAUCES
Thickening agents used for SAUCES are as under:
1. Roux
2. Beurre manie
3. Starch
4. Egg yolk
5. Puree
6. Blood
7. Glazes
ROUX
A roux is a combination of Fat and Flour which are cooked together. Roux is of type:
1. White roux
2. Blond roux
3. Brown roux
BEURRE MAINE
Equal quantity of Butter or Margarine and Flour kneaded to a smooth paste and added to boiling liquid.
STARCH
Starch such as corn flour, arrowroot, potato starch etc. are used to thicken sauce or gravy.
EGG YOLK
Egg yolk is used in emulsified sauces such as mayonnaise, hollandaise and custard sauces.
PUREE
Vegetable or fruit puree is known as CULLIS used in thickening.
BLOOD
Blood is used in recipes such as jugged hare
GLAZES
Stock reduced base sauces are prepared using demi-glaze
CLASSIFICATION OF SAUCES
SAUCE
MOTHER SAUCE
PROPRIETARY SAUCE
MISCELLANEOUS SAUCE
HOT
COLD
WHITE
BROWN
BÉCHAMEL
VOLUTE
ESPAGNOLE
TOMATO
CURRY, GRAVY,
MAYONNAISE
COMPOUND BUTTER
HOLLANDAISE
BASIC MOTHER SAUCES
Basic mother sauces are:
n BÉCHAMEL
n VELOUTÉ
n ESPAGNOLE
n TOMATO
n HOLLANDAISE
n MAYONNAISE
BÉCHAMEL
A white sauce prepared by adding milk to roux.
This sauce is widely used for egg, vegetables and gratin dishes. It can be kept warm in bain-marie and used to prepare other derivatives
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Margarine / oil / Butter 100Gms.
Flour 100Gms.
Milk 1000 Ml.
Studded onion 1 Nos.
METHOD
Met fat in thick bottom pan.
Add flour and mix well.
Cook for few minutes over a gentle heat with out coloring.
Remove from heat and cool the roux.
Gradually add the warm milk and stir till smooth.
Add onion studded with clove and allow simmering for 30 Min. remove from heat and take out onion and strain.
Cover with thin film of butter to prevent skin formation.
DERIVATIVES OF BÉCHAMEL
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Mornay
Béchamel + Parmesan + Egg yolk
Fish, Eggs & Vegetables
Cream
Béchamel + Fresh cream + Butter
Poached Fish, Boiled Vegetable.
Soubise
Béchamel, Sautéed Onion, Pepper + Nutmeg and strained
Eggs, Fish, Roast Meat
Scotch egg
Béchamel + 2 Hard Boiled egg, diced
Poached/Boiled Fish
Parsley
Béchamel + Fresh Cream + Chopped Parsley
Poached/Boiled Fish, Veg
Anchovy
Béchamel + Anchovy Essence
Poach/Boil/Fry Fish
Onion
Béchamel + minced Onion cooked in milk
Roast Mutton
Mustard
Béchamel + French/English Mustard
Grilled Herrings
VELOUTÉ
A sauce prepared from white stock and blond roux.
It can be kept warm in bain-marie and used to prepare other derivatives.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Margarine / oil / Butter 100Gms.
Flour 100Gms.
Stock 1000 Ml.
METHOD
Melt fat in thick bottom pan.
Add flour and mix well.
Cook to a sandy texture over a gentle heat with out coloring.
Remove from heat and cool the roux.
Gradually add the boiling stock and stir till smooth.
Allow to simmer for approximately 1Hrs.
Remove from heat and strain
DERIVATIVES OF VELOUTÉ
CHICKEN VELOUTÉ
NAME OF SAUCE
I NGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Supreme
Chicken Velouté + White wine + Parsley +Shallots + Mushroom trimmings & strain add Fresh Cream + Egg yolk +Lemon juice
Fish Chicken
Allemande
Chicken Velouté + Egg yolk + Mushroom trimmings + Cream + Lemon juice
Poached Chicken
Ivory
Sauce supreme + Meat Glaze
Poached/Boiled Chicken
Mushroom
Sauce supreme + sliced Button Mushroom
Chicken, Mutton
Chaudfroid
Chicken Velouté + Chicken glaze + Cream
Cold dishes
Chivry
Chicken Velouté + Tarragon +Parsley +Chives then strain + Green Butter
Boiled/Poached Poultry
MEAT / FISH VELOUTÉ
Shrimp
Fish velouté + fish fumet + cream + shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter
Fish Shrimp
Normande
Fish velouté + mushrooms + oyster liquor +fish fumet finished with egg yolk cream + shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter
Fish & Shell Fish
Diplomat
Normande sauce + Lobster butter garnished with dices of lobster and truffles
Fish Shellfish
Caper
Mutton velouté + caper
Boiled leg of Mutton
Bercy
Allemande Sauce + chopped shallots +white wine + meat glaze + butter garnished with dices of marrow & chopped parsley
Grilled meat
Nantua
Fish velouté + fried mirepoix fish in crayfish butter
Fish Shellfish
ESPAGNOLE
A sauces made by adding brown stock to brown roux and mirepoix and tomato puree.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Margarine / oil / Butter 50 Gms.
Flour 60 Gms.
Brown Stock 1000 Ml.
Tomatos puree 25 Gms.
Carrot 100 Gms.
Onion 100 Gms.
Celery 50 Gms.
METHOD
Met fat in thick bottom pan.
Add flour and mix well to a light brown colour, stirring frequently.
Cool and mix the tomato puree. Gradually add the boiling stock and bring to boil.
Wash, peal and roughly cut the vegetables and brown lightly, drain extra fat and add to sauce.
Simmer for 4-6 Hrs. and Skim when necessary.
DERIVATIVES OF ESPAGNOLE
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Bercy
Demi glaze + meat glaze + Minced shallots + white wine + sliced bone marrow
Grilled Meat Fish
Chasseur
Demi glaze + minced mushroom + sautéed chopped shallots & Parsley + reduced w. wine
grilled/sautéed M P Egg
Robert
Demi glaze + chopped onion + vinegar + sugar + mustard
Grilled Meat
Charcutiere
Robert sauce + juliennes of Gherkin
Grilled Pork chops
Madeira
Demi glaze + Madeira wine
Small items of M F P
TOMATO
A sauce made by cooking tomatoes with bacon, carrots, chopped onion and garlic in stock and passed through sieve.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Margarine / oil / Butter 10 Gms.
Flour 10 Gms.
Stock 375 Ml.
Tomatos puree 50 Gms.
Carrot 50 Gms.
Onion 50Gms.
Celery 25 Gms
Bacon strips 10 Gms.
Bay leaf, Thyme, clove, garlic, salt & Pepper
METHOD
Met fat in thick bottom pan.
Add the herbs and mirepoix and Bacon scrap brown lightly.
Mix the flour and cook to sandy texture and colour slightly.
Mix tomato puree and allow cooling.
Gradually add boiling stock.
Stir and add garlic, seasoning and simmer for 1 Hrs.
Correct the seasoning and cool. Pass through strainer.
DERIVATIVES OF TOMATO
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Bretonne
Tomato sauce + sauteed chopped onions +White wine à reduce & strained add Butter and chopped Parsley
Haricots
Portugaise
Tomato sauce + White wine + garlic +tomato concasse
Egg, Fish, Shell Fish
Italienne
Tomato sauce + demi-glaze + chopped shallots, Mushroom, Lean Ham & fine herbs
Brains, Lamb, Cutlets
Barbecue
Tomato sauce + ketchup + vinegar + Sugar
Barbecued MFP
Tomato-Chaudfroid
Tomato sauce + aspic jelly
cold chicken and Eggs
Provencale
Thin Tomato sauce + sauteed sliced mushroom + chopped Parsley, Garlic, Tomato Concasse + Sugar
With cold MFP
HOLLANDAISE
A hot emulsified sauce made from egg yolk and clarified butter.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Butter 200 Gms.
Egg yolk 200 Gms.
Crushed Pepper Corn 2 Nos.
Vinegar 15 Ml.
Lemon juice ½
METHOD
Melt butter in a pan.
Place crushed peeper corn and Vinegar and reduce.
Add little water to cool.
Add egg yolk and whisk.
Place the pan in a double boiler and whisk the egg yolk till it gets cooked.
Gradually add the melted butter until it blends and forma a thick sauce.
Add lemon juice.
Strain and correct the seasonings.
DERIVATIVES OF HOLLANDAISE
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Maltaise
Hollandaise + Zest + Orange juice
Hot Asparagus
Mousseline
Hollandaise + stiffly whipped Cream
Fish, Egg, Vegetable & Meat
Noisette
Hollandaise + nut brown cooked butter
Poached Salmon, Trout
Béarnaise
Hollandaise + chopped Tarragon& Chervil
Grilled MF
Choron
Béarnaise sauce + Tomato puree
Grilled & Sauteed Meat
Foyot
Béarnaise sauce + meat glaze
Grilled & Sauteed Meat
Mustard
Hollandaise + mustard
Meat, Steak
MAYONNAISE
A cold emulsified sauce consisting of egg yolks and oil blended together and flavored with vinegar, salt, pepper and mustard.
INGREGIENTS QUANTITY
Salad oil 1000 Ml.
Egg yolk 8 Eggs
Mustard ¼ table spoon
Vinegar 25 Ml.
Lemon 1 Nos.
Seasonings to taste
METHOD
Place the egg yolk, vinegar & seasonings in a clean bowl.
Whisk well.
Slowly add oil and whisk continuously until all oil is incorporated.
Finnish it by adding juice of lemon and warm water.
DERIVATIVES OF MAYONNAISE
NAME OF SAUCE
INGREDIENTS
SERVED WITH
Cambridge
Pounded hard-boiled eggs + anchovy fillets +capers + chervil + tarragon + chives + vinegar +Cayenne pepper, add oil gradually as for mayonnaise, strain + chopped parsley
cold meat
Tartare
Mayonnaise + hard yolk of eggs, garnished with finely chopped onion and chives
Fried fish / shellfish
Green Sauce
Mayonnaise sauce mixed with puree of blanched herbs, spinach, water parsley, chervil, tarragon. Pass through very fine sieve
Cold fish & shellfish
Vincent
Equal quantity of Tartare & Green Sauce
Cold fish & Shellfish
Thousand Island-
Dressing
Mayonnaise + hard boiled eggs + tomato ketchup + chopped gherkins + onions +pimentos, olives + paprika powder
Cold Meat
Cocktail
Mayonnaise + tomato ketchup + Worcester sauce + Tabasco + cream + lemon juice
Shellfish
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