food production part----1

2.2 COOKING MATERIALS
Different raw materials are used in cooking to produce a
complete dish. Each ingredient in a dish has a special part to play
. The materials are classified according to the part
they play in making a dish.
The following is the major classification of
raw materials:
1) Foundation ingredient 6) Flavourings and seasonings
2) Fats & oils 7) Sweetenings
3) Salt 8) Thickenings
4) Raising agents 9) Eggs
5) Liquids

2.3 FOUNDATION INGREDIENT
An ingredient is any substance used in the manufacture or
preparation of a foodstuff and still present in the finished product,
even if in an altered form..
The foundation ingredient can be a liquid or a solid. Example:
flour in bread, meat in roast, . Every dish has a
foundation ingredient on which the other ingredients are based.


2.4 FATS AND OILS
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds . Fats may
be either solid or liquid at normal room temperature and melt when
heated. Example: butter, margarine, lard, suet, . Some of the many different kinds of
edible vegetable oils include: olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola
oil, pumpkin seed oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, , sesame oil, l and rice bran oil. Many other kinds of
vegetable oils are also used for cooking.
oils are nutritionally useful. It gives a satiety value to
the dish. They also contribute characteristic palatability, qualities of
flavour and texture. They are popularly used as the medium of
cooking.

Fats are solid at ordinary temperature and melt when heated.
Oils are liquids at ordinary temperature but solidify at low
temperatures.
2.4.1 Characteristics of Fats and Oils
Heating oil changes its characteristics. Some oils that are
healthy at room temperature can become unhealthy when heated
above certain temperatures. When choosing a cooking oil, it is
therefore important to note the oil's for frying
§ Almond oil
§ Apricot kernel oil
§ High-oleic safflower oil or sunflower oil
§ Peanut oil
§ Soybean oil
Oils suitable for medium temperature frying include , canola oil, walnut oil, sunflower oil, sesame oil.

2.4.2 Uses of Fats and Oils
Fats and oils are used for various purposes, the major
culinary part, played by them are:
(i) Frying media
(ii) Shortenings
(iii) Spreads
(iv) Salad dressings
(v) Tempering
Frying Media:
Fats and oils are used as a medium of cooking i.e. pan
roasting, frying and sautéing. When fats or oils are heated, a
temperature is reached at smoke point. Fats with high smoke point are
suitable for frying. Smoke point is not the same for different
fats.
Shortenings:
Fats are used in confectionery to enrich the food and to
impart to them short eating qualities. Collectively they are
referred to as shortening agents. Their effect is to break down
or destroy the toughness of gluten, so that instead of being
hard and tough to eat, food containing fat break off short and
readily melt in the mouth.
Spreads:
Butter and margarines are used for spreads, and their
function is to add to the flavour, nutritional value and stiety
value of breads.
Salad Dressings:
Fat is used for the various salad dressings. The hot animal
fat dressings, which consist of bacon fat, vinegar and
seasonings are used for green hot salads. Mayonnaise used
for dressing salads is an emulsion of oil, acid, egg yolk and
seasoning.
Tempering:
Dishes such as dals, curries are tempered. The fat or oil is
heated to which cuminseed or mustard or fenugreek seeds
etc is added and poured over the dals and pulses.
2.4.3 Rendering of Fat
l fat is heated and melted and this renders fat from fatty
tissues. Tallow, suet, lard are usually rendered and used for cooking.
The fat is cut into small pieces and placed in a pan and put in the
oven or on slow fire, until the fat melts, and there are crisp brown
pieces of tissues left. This should be strained through a fine cloth
into a clean bowl.
2.4.4 Clarification of Fat
Used fat should be clarified and then used for better results in
cooking. Strain the used fat and then mix double the quantity of
water, in a pan and bring it to the boil. Strain again, cool and place in
a refrigerator. The fat will solidify and float on top. Lift the cake of fat,
turn it upside down and scrape off the foreign particles that have
collected. Heat the fat on slow fire, till the water evaporates and then
strain and store it in a cool place.
2.5 SALT
Salt is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light grey in
color, normally obtained from sea water or rock deposits. Salt is an
essential ingredient for both sweet and savoury dishes. Salt helps to
bring out the flavour of other ingredients. If too much is added, food
becomes inedible and too little makes food insipid. The right amount
to be added is known by experience. It adds to the nutritive value of
food by providing the essential mineral, sodium chloride.
Salt has physical effects on the gluten of flour. Too much salt on the other hand
will remove the power of gluten to hold gas. Salt also acts as a
preservative; it speeds up coagulation of eggs and lowers the
freezing point.
Salt is available in three forms:
1. Table salt (fine) containing phosphate
2. Coarse or freezing salt for culinary purposes
3. Celery salt (used as an alternative to fresh celery or
celery seed).
2.5.1 Uses of Salt
1) Salt is essential for good health.
2) Salt is used as a preservative and as a seasoning. Salting
is one of the oldest popular methods of preserving ham,
bacon, fish, etc.
3) Use of the correct amount of salt improves the flavour of
the savory dished and when a little is added to sweet
dished, it enhances the flavour.
It has a physical effect on the flour and
strengthens gluten and increases its resistance to the
softening effects of fermentation.
5) Cauliflower, when put in salted water, makes the insects
come out.
6) It has a controlling effect on the activity of yeast in bakery
products. It controls fermentation and hence it has marked
effect on crumb, crust and colour of baked products.
7) Salt added to water, for cooking green vegetables, helps in
colour retention and enhances the taste.
2.6 RAISING AGENTS
A raising agent (also called leavening or leaven) is a
substance used in doughs and batters that causes a foaming action
intended to lighten and soften the finished product.
The function of the raising agent is to puff up the food that it
spreads and rises and becomes full of holes, thus making it light and
not close and heavy. The holes made by the raising agents are
retained during the process of cooking. The leavening of the flour
mixture is accomplished by the expansion of water vapour and
carbon dioxide. When the product is heated the air expands and part
of the water vaporizes. The formation of carbon-dioxide requires the
presence of suitable microorganisms or chemical agents. During the
first part of heating gas production is accelerated and the gas formed
expands as the temperature rises.
The following are the different types of raising agents:
· Biological raising agents
· Chemical raising agents
· Mechanical leavening
· Other leaveners
2.6.1 Biological Leaveners
Microorganisms that release carbon dioxide as part of their
lifecycle can be used to leaven products. Varieties of yeast are most
often used, particularly Saccharomyces species (i.e. baker's yeast),
though some recipes also rely on certain bacteria. Yeast leaves
behind waste byproducts (particularly ethanol and some autolysis
products) that contribute to the distinctive flavor of yeast breads. In
sourdough breads, the flavor is further enhanced by various lactic or
acetic acid bacteria.
Leavening with yeast is a process based on fermentation,
physically changing the chemistry of the dough or batter as the yeast
works. Unlike chemical leavening, which usually activates as soon
as the water combines the acid and base chemicals, yeast leavening
requires proofing, which allows the yeast time to reproduce and
consume carbohydrates in the flour.

While not as widely used, bacterial fermentation is sometimes
used, occasionally providing a drastically changed flavor profile from
yeast fermentation; salt rising bread, which uses a culture of the
Clostridium perfringens bacterium, is a well-known example.
Some typical biological leaveners are:
§ beer (unpasteurised - live yeast)
§ buttermilk
§ ginger beer
§ sourdough starter
§ yeast
§ yogurt
2.6.2 Chemical Leaveners
Chemical leaveners are chemical mixtures or compounds
that typically release carbon dioxide or other gases when they react
with moisture and heat; they are almost always based on a
combination of acid (usually a low molecular weight organic acid)
and an alkali (though ammonia-based leaveners are also available,
though in decreasing quantity). They usually leave behind a
chemical salt. Chemical leaveners are used in quick breads and
cakes, as well as cookies and numerous other applications



. These are

generally referred to as baking powders.
Chemical leavening agents include:
§ baking powder
§ baking soda
§ ammonium bicarbonate
§ potassium bicarbonate
§ potassium bitartrate
§ potassium carbonate
§ monocalcium phosphate
2.6.3 Mechanical Leavening
Mechanical leavening is the process of incorporating air by
whisking, beating and sieving. Creamed mixtures are
usually further leavened by a chemical leavener. This is often used
in cookies.


2.6.4 Other Leaveners
Steam and air are used as leavening agents when they
expand upon heating. To take advantage of this style of leavening,
the baking must be done at high enough temperatures to flash the
water to steam, with a batter that is capable of holding the steam in
until set.
Air as a Raising Agent:
Air is incorporated by sifting flour, by creaming shortening, by
beating eggs or by beating the mixture itself.
Water Vapour as a Raising Agent:
Water vapour is formed in quantities sufficient to raise the
mixture when liquid and flour are in equal volumes.
2.7 LIQUIDS
Cooking often involves water which is frequently present as
other liquids, both added in order to immerse the substances being
cooked (typically water, stock or wine), and released from the foods
themselves.
2.7.1 Water and Milk
Water and milk are used for preparing poaching liquor,
soups, sauces, gravies, cakes and pastry mistures and kneading of
doughs etc. Butter milk is used for curries, kadi, etc.

2.8 FLAVOURINGS AND SEASONINGS
Flavouring and seasoning are the process of adding or
improving flavor of food. Flavouring combines taste and smell such
as essences, cardomon, nutmeg, thyme etc. Seasonings include
herbs, spices, and all other condiments. Example: black pepper,
basil, kosher salt, etc.
Spices and herbs give flavouring and seasoning to the
dishes. To get effective results, not only should the food, please the
eye, but should also flatter or stimulate the palate. The success of
cooking largely depends upon the help we obtain from flavoring and
seasoning. The spice we use for this purpose should be used
sparingly, as well as with skill . Seasoning should bring out the
natural flavours of the main ingredients and blend with them.
Seasonings as such have little or no nutritive value but are valuable
for they give variety to the dishes and have medicine value.
Spices that have flavourings and seasonings are: Garlic
ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, cumin seeds, mustard seeds,
poppy seeds, nutmeg, coriander powder, mace, pepper, fenugreek,
chillies, saffron, aniseeds, turmeric, paprika, caraway seeds,
allspices, sesame. Various herbs are: parsley, celery, coriander
leaves, thyme, tarragon, rosemary, mint, marzoram, sage, bay leaf,
basil, chervil, caripatta, etc .
2.8.1 Important of Spices and Herbs
(i) Help in digestion - From pre-historic times spices
have been used. Clove oil stimulates the flow of
gastric juices, garlic, aniseeds and asafetida are taken

(ii) Seed for medicinal purposes – For toothache, clove
oil relieves pain. Turmeric and oil applied on swellings
and hurts, cures, as it is believed to have antiseptic

qualities. Garlic and saunf helps digestion, ginger
added to tea helps to cure colds. Turmeric added to
milk is given to a person who is in a state of shock.
(iii) Enhance flavor - Dishes would be insipid and bland
if the spices were not added, because they give a
good flavor and stimulate appetite. Monosodium
Glutamate is a flavor enhancer in meat and fish
dishes. Cinnamon, bay leaf, nutmeg, saffron, pepper,
Cloves etc.
(iv) Improve appearance - Some of the spices give
color to the food and improve the appearance of the
dish. Turmeric, saffron, coriander leaves, poppy
seeds, raratanjoi add colour to the food, which makes
the dish interesting.
(v) Improve palatability - Salt is one of the important
seasonings that enhances the taste of the food. It also
brings out the flavour. The other seasonings that
improve the palatability are pepper, chillies, poppy
seed's, coriander seeds and paprika etc.
(vi) Act as preservatives - Many foods are preserved for
a longer time with the help of spices. Salt is used
extensively for preserving - Brine, solution. Other
spices that have the preservative quality are:-
turmeric, cloves, mustard, ginger, garlic. Pickling is
one of the forms of preserving



2.9.1 Sugar
Sugar is the naturally occurring nutrient that makes food taste
sweet. It is a carbohydrate along with starch. Sugar as a basic food
carbohydrate primarily comes from sugar cane and from sugar beet,
but also appears in fruit, honey, sorghum, sugar maple (in maple
syrup), and from many other sources.
2.9.2 Different Types of Sugar
Sugars vary in their sweetening quality and are available in
the following form-granulated sugar, castor sugar (finer than
granulated and used for baking), icing sugar, preserving sugar
(coarser than granulated and used for jams and jellies), and brown
sugar (for colour and flavour), lactose (milk sugar) cane syrup, maple
syrup, , honey and golden syrup.

2.9.3 Uses of Sugar
Sugar is not just a sweetener; it can be used in a number of
different ways:
1) As a preservative: at the right concentration sugar helps
to stop microorganisms growing and so prevents food
spoilage. For example, as in jams and other preserves.
This is why reduced sugar jams spoil much more quickly
than traditional jams.
2) It helps to produce subtle changes in flavour. Sugar
offsets the acidity and sour flavour in many foods such as
mayonnaise, tomato products and tart fruits like
gooseberries and grapefruit.
3) As a bulking agent: sugar gives the characteristic texture
to a variety of foods - including jams, ice cream and
cakes.

4) To raise the boiling point or lower the freezing point. This
is essential in some recipes, for example making ice
cream.
5) To speed up the process of fermentation (by yeast) in
baking. This makes the dough rise, for example, bread
and tea-cakes.
6) It makes cakes light and open-textured when it is beaten
with butter or eggs in a recipe.
7) Low concentration of sugar speeds the effectiveness of
baker’s yeast by providing an immediate, fast cooking
source of nourishment for its growth-thus hastening the
leavening process.
8) The ability of sugar to crystallize, gives a delightful variety
in cookery.
9) Sugar gives puddings, bread, buns and bread rolls a
good flavour and the characteristic golden brown colour,
flavour (caramel) and a tender light and even texture.
2.9.4 Liquid Sweeteners
Liquid sweeteners include various syrups, honey, and
molasses. Liquid sweeteners are typically less expensive than dry
nutritive sweeteners. The following are some of the liquid
sweeteners:
Barley Malt Syrup:
This tastes a bit like molasses, and it's not as sweet as sugar
or honey. It's mostly used to make beer, but it's also used to
make breads or other baked goods.
Blackstrap Molasses:
This has a strong, bitter flavor, and it's not very sweet. It's
sometimes used to make chili.
Brown Rice Syrup:
Health buffs like this because it contains complex sugars,
which are absorbed more slowly into the bloodstream. It's
about half as sweet as ordinary table sugar.
Coconut Syrup:
Hawaiians like to pour this syrup on pancakes, but it's also
used in several mixed drinks.
Corn Syrup:
This is a thick, sweet syrup that's popular in America, but
hard to find in other countries. Unlike other sweeteners, corn
syrup doesn't crystallize and turn grainy when it's cold, so it's